The use of drones for mosquito surveillance and control

Gabriel Carrasco-Escobar, Marta Moreno, Kimberly Fornace, Manuela Herrera-Varela, Edgar Manrique, Jan E Conn, Gabriel Carrasco-Escobar, Marta Moreno, Kimberly Fornace, Manuela Herrera-Varela, Edgar Manrique, Jan E Conn

Abstract

In recent years, global health security has been threatened by the geographical expansion of vector-borne infectious diseases such as malaria, dengue, yellow fever, Zika and chikungunya. For a range of these vector-borne diseases, an increase in residual (exophagic) transmission together with ecological heterogeneity in everything from weather to local human migration and housing to mosquito species' behaviours presents many challenges to effective mosquito control. The novel use of drones (or uncrewed aerial vehicles) may play a major role in the success of mosquito surveillance and control programmes in the coming decades since the global landscape of mosquito-borne diseases and disease dynamics fluctuates frequently and there could be serious public health consequences if the issues of insecticide resistance and outdoor transmission are not adequately addressed. For controlling both aquatic and adult stages, for several years now remote sensing data have been used together with predictive modelling for risk, incidence and detection of transmission hot spots and landscape profiles in relation to mosquito-borne pathogens. The field of drone-based remote sensing is under continuous change due to new technology development, operation regulations and innovative applications. In this review we outline the opportunities and challenges for integrating drones into vector surveillance (i.e. identification of breeding sites or mapping micro-environmental composition) and control strategies (i.e. applying larval source management activities or deploying genetically modified agents) across the mosquito life-cycle. We present a five-step systematic environmental mapping strategy that we recommend be undertaken in locations where a drone is expected to be used, outline the key considerations for incorporating drone or other Earth Observation data into vector surveillance and provide two case studies of the advantages of using drones equipped with multispectral cameras. In conclusion, recent developments mean that drones can be effective for accurately conducting surveillance, assessing habitat suitability for larval and/or adult mosquitoes and implementing interventions. In addition, we briefly discuss the need to consider permissions, costs, safety/privacy perceptions and community acceptance for deploying drone activities.

Keywords: Control; Dengue; Drones; Infectious diseases; Malaria; Uncrewed aerial vehicle.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential competing interests.

© 2022. The Author(s).

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
To understand the different stages at which drones can be used in surveillance and control of vector-borne pathogens it is important to follow the vector life-cycle and relate it to the environment wherein mosquitoes develop. Juvenile stages develop in aquatic habitats; in contrast, adult mosquitoes are broadly dispersed in the landscape. Drones are being used to produce high-resolution maps of these landscapes and to assist surveillance and control activities in the field
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
To successfully map the environment where mosquitoes develop it is important to do it in a systematic way, to guarantee repetition on subsequent sampling campaigns and to achieve the proposed goals of the survey. Steps 1–5 show an example of the workflow that is used to map the aquatic habitats of anopheline mosquitoes. AOI, Area of interest; GCP, Ground Control Points; GPS, Global Positioning System
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Frequently used remote sensing definitions
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
Drones are advantageous in their ability to detect small-sized features, as they produce high-resolution imagery at the sub-meter level. This is particularly important in vector-borne studies because water bodies/containers suitable for mosquito breeding are frequently small. The top row shows a comparison of the pixel size produced by a drone in contrast to two commonly used freely available satellite imageries. The middle row demonstrates changes in the landscape composition across a 2-month window, as captured by drones, which otherwise might be overlooked by satellite images. The bottom row shows imageries with common bands that are available in the sensor often used in drones: RBG cameras (left), multispectral cameras that have NIR and red edge band (middle) and an NDVI composite using red and NIR bands (right). MS, Mass spectrometry; NDVI, normalized difference vegetation index; NIR, near infrared; RBG, red, green and blue color model
Fig. 5
Fig. 5
a Deforestation disrupts wildlife habitats and can bring human, mosquito and macaque populations in closer proximity, thereby increasing the potential for disease transmission. Monitoring wildlife populations is essential for understanding disease dynamics in these changing landscapes. b Inspection with thermal cameras

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Source: PubMed

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