Molecules of Silence: Effects of Meditation on Gene Expression and Epigenetics

Sabrina Venditti, Loredana Verdone, Anna Reale, Valerio Vetriani, Micaela Caserta, Michele Zampieri, Sabrina Venditti, Loredana Verdone, Anna Reale, Valerio Vetriani, Micaela Caserta, Michele Zampieri

Abstract

Many studies have consistently demonstrated an epigenetic link between environmental stimuli and physiological as well as cognitive responses. Epigenetic mechanisms represent a way to regulate gene activity in real time without modifying the DNA sequence, thus allowing the genome to adapt its functions to changing environmental contexts. Factors such as lifestyle, behavior, and the practice of sitting and moving mindful activities have been shown to be important means of environmental enrichment. Such practices, which include mindfulness meditation, Vipassana, Yoga, Tai Chi, and Quadrato Motor Training, have been reported to positively impact well-being. In fact, they can be considered emotional and attentional regulatory activities, which, by inducing a state of greater inner silence, allow the development of increased self-awareness. Inner silence can therefore be considered a powerful tool to counteract the negative effects of overabundant environmental noise, thanks to its power to relieve stress-related symptoms. Since all these positive outcomes rely on physiological and biochemical activities, the molecular and epigenetic mechanisms influenced by different mindful practices have recently started to be investigated. Here, we review some of the findings that could allow us to uncover the mechanisms by which specific practices influence well-being.

Keywords: epigenetic marks; epigenetics; gene-expression; meditation; mindfulness; silence.

Copyright © 2020 Venditti, Verdone, Reale, Vetriani, Caserta and Zampieri.

References

    1. Abbott R. A., Lavretsky H. (2013). Tai Chi and qigong for the treatment and prevention of mental disorders. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 36 109–119. 10.1016/j.psc.2013.01.011
    1. Argentieri M. A., Nagarajan S., Seddighzadeh B., Baccarelli A. A., Shields A. E. (2017). Epigenetic pathways in human disease: the impact of DNA methylation on stress-related pathogenesis and current challenges in biomarker development. EBioMedicine 18 327–350. 10.1016/j.ebiom.2017.03.044
    1. Balasubramanian S., Mintzer J. E., Wahlquist A. E. (2015). Induction of salivary nerve growth factor by yogic breathing: a randomized control trial. Int. Psychogeriatr. 27 168–170. 10.1017/S1041610214001616
    1. Baroncelli L., Braschi C., Spolidoro M., Begenisic T., Sale A., Maffei L. (2010). Nurturing brain plasticity: impact of environmental enrichment. Cell Death Diff. 17 1092–1103. 10.1038/cdd.2009.193
    1. Ben-Soussan T. D., Berkovich-Ohana A., Carducci F., Paoletti P., Venditti S. (2019). “Silent waiting: frontal theta modulation during the quadrato motor training,” in Proceedings of the International Conference on Neurophysiology of Silence (ICONS), Assisi: 10.3389/978-2-88945-674-1
    1. Ben-Soussan T. D., Berkovich-Ohana A., Glicksohn J., Goldstein A. (2014). A suspended act: increased reflectivity and gender-dependent electrophysiological change following Quadrato Motor Training. Front. Psychol. 5:55 10.3398/fpsyg.2014.00055
    1. Ben-Soussan T. D., Glickson J., Berkovich-Ohana A. (2015a). From cerebellar activation and connectivity to cognition: a review of Quadrato Motor Training. Biomed Res. Int. 2015:954901. 10.1155/2015/954901
    1. Ben-Soussan T. D., Piervincenzi C., Venditti S., Verdone L., Caserta M., Carducci F. (2015b). Increased cerebellar volume and BDNF level following Quadrato Motor Training. Synapse 69 1–6. 10.1002/syn.21787
    1. Ben−Soussan T. D., Glicksohn J., De Fano A., Mauro F., Marson F., Modica M., et al. (2019). Embodied time: time production in advanced Quadrato and Aikido practitioners. Psych. J. 8 8–16. 10.1002/pchj.266
    1. Bhasin M. K., Dusek J. A., Chang B.-H., Joseph M. G., Denninger J. W., Fricchione G. L., et al. (2013). Relaxation response induces temporal transcriptome changes in energy metabolism, insulin secretion and inflammatory pathways. PLoS One 8:e62817. 10.1371/journal.pone.0062817
    1. Bishop J. R., Lee A. M., Mills L. J., Thuras P. D., Eum S., Clancy D., et al. (2018). Methylation of FKBP5 and SLC6A4 in relation to treatment response to mindfulness-based stress reduction for posttraumatic stress disorders. Front. Psychiatry 9:418. 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00418
    1. Black D. S., Slavich G. M. (2016). Mindfulness meditation and the immune system: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1373 13–24. 10.1111/nyas.12998
    1. Black D. S., Cole S. W., Irwin M. R., Breen E., St.Cyr N. M., Nazarian N., et al. (2013). Yogic meditation reverses NF-kB and IRF-related transcriptome dynamics in leukocytes of family dementia caregivers in a randomized controlled trial. Psychoneuroendocrinology 38, 348–355. 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.06.011
    1. Bower J. E., Crosswell A. D., Stanton A. L., Crespi C. M., Winston D., Arevalo J. (2015). Mindfulness meditation for younger breast cancer survivors: a randomized control trial. Cancer 121 1231–1240.
    1. Bower J. E., Greendale G., Crosswell A. D., Garet D., Sternlieb B., Ganz P. A., et al. (2014). Mindfulness meditation for younger breast cancer survivors: a randomized controlled trial. Cancer 121 1231–1240. 10.1002/cncr.29194
    1. Buric I., Faria M., Jong J., Mee C., Brazil I. A. (2017). What is the molecular signature of mind-body interventions? A systematic review of gene expression changes induced by meditation and related practices. Front. Immunol. 8:art670. 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00670
    1. Cahn R. B., Goodman M. S., Peterson C. T., Maturi R., Mills P. J. (2017). Yoga, meditation and mind-body health: increased BDNF, cortisol awakening response, and altered inflammatory marker expression after 3-month yoga and meditation retreat. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 11:315. 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00315
    1. Campo R. A., Light K. C., O’Connor K., Nakamura Y., Lipschiz D., LaStayo P. C., et al. (2015). Blood pressure, salivary cortisol, and inflammatory cytokine outcomes in senior female cancer survivors enrolled in a Tai Chi chih randomized control trial. J. Cancer Surviv. 9 115–125. 10.1007/s11764-014-0395-x
    1. Caserta M., Ben-Soussan T. D., Vetriani V., Venditti S., Verdone L. (2019). Influence of Quadrato Motor Training on salivary proNGF and proBDNF. Front. Neurosci. 13:58. 10.3389/fnins.2019.00058
    1. Cattaneo A., Cattaneo N., Begni V., Pariante C. M., Riva M. A. (2016). The human BDNF gene: peripheral gene expression and protein levels as biomarkers for psychiatric disorders. Transl. Psychiatry 6:e958. 10.1038/tp.2016.214
    1. Cavalli G., Heard E. (2019). Advances in epigenetics link genetics to the environment and disease. Nature 571 489–499. 10.1038/s41586-019-1411-0
    1. Chaix R., Alvarez-Lopez M. J., Fagny M., Lemee L., Regnault B., Davidson R. J., et al. (2017). Epigenetic clock analysis in long-term meditators. Psychoneuroendocrinology 85 210–214. 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.08.016
    1. Chaix R., Fagny M., Cosin-Tomás M., Alvarez-López M., Lemee L., Regnault B., et al. (2020). Differential DNA methylation in experienced meditators after and intensive day of mindfulness-based practice: implications for immune-related pathways. Brain Behav. Immun. 84 36–44. 10.1016/j.bbi.2019.11.003
    1. Chen B. H., Marioni R. E., Colicino E., Peters M. J., Ward-Caviness C. K., Tsai P. C., et al. (2016). DNA methylation-based measures of biological age: meta-analysis predicting time to death. Aging 8 1844–1865. 10.18632/aging.101020
    1. Chételat G., Lutz A., Arenaza-Urquijo E., Collette F., Klimecki O., Marchant N. (2018). Why could meditation practice help promote mental health and well-being in aging? Alzheimers Res. Ther. 10:57. 10.1186/s13195-018-0388-5
    1. Creswell J. D., Irwin M. R., Burklund L. J., Lieberman M. D., Arevalo J. M., Ma J., et al. (2012). Mindfulness-based stress reduction training reduces loneliness and proinflammatory gene expression in older adults: a small randomized control trial. Brain. Behav. Immun. 26 1095–1101. 10.1016/j.bbi.2012.07.006
    1. Dada R., Kumar S. B., Tolahunase M., Mishra S., Mohanty K., Mukesh T. (2015). Yoga and meditation as a therapeutic intervention in oxydative stress and oxidative DNA damage to paternal genome. J. Yoga Phys. Ther. 5:4 10.4172/2157-7595.1000217
    1. Dada T., Mittal D., Mohanty K., Faiq M. A., Bhat M. A., Yadav R. K., et al. (2018). Mindfulness meditation reduces intraocular pressure, lowers stress biomarkers and modulates gene expression in glaucoma: a randomized trial. J. Glaucoma 12 1061–1067. 10.1097/ijg.0000000000001088
    1. Daube W. C., Jakobsche C. E. (2015). Biochemical effects of meditation: a literature review. Undergrad. Res. J. Clark 1:10.
    1. De Fano A., Leshem R., Ben-Soussan T. D. (2019). Creating an internal environment of cognitive and psycho-emotional well-being through an external movement-based environment: an overview of quadrato motor training. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 16:2160. 10.3390/ijerph16122160
    1. Depraz N., Varela F. J., Vermersch P. (2000). “The gesture of awareness: an account of its structural dynamics,” in Investigating Phenomenal Consciousness, ed. Velmans M. (Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins; ), 121–136.
    1. Diamond A., Ling D. S. (2019). “Review of the evidence on, and fundamental questions about, efforts to improve executive functions, including working memory,” in Cognitive and Working Memory Training: Perspectives from Psychology, Neuroscience, and Human Development, eds Bunting M., Novick J., Dougherty M., Engle R. W. (Oxford: Oxford University Press; ), 143–385.
    1. Dotan Ben-Soussan T., Avirame K., Glicksohn J., Goldstein A., Berkovich-Ohana A., Donchin O. (2013). Into the square and out of the box: the effects of Quadrato Motor Training on creativity and alpha coherence. PLoS One 8:e55023. 10.1371/journal.pone.0055023
    1. Dusek J. A., Out H. H., Wohlhueter A. L., Bjasin M., Zerbini L. F., Joseph M. G., et al. (2008). Genomic counter-stress changes induced by the relaxation response. PLoS One 3:e2576. 10.1371/journal.pone.0002576
    1. Epel E. S., Puterman E., Lin J., Blackburn E. H., Lum P. Y., Beckman N. D., et al. (2016). Meditation and vacation effects have an impact on disease-associated molecular phenotypes. Transl. Psychiatry 6:e880. 10.1038/tp.2016.164
    1. Fraga M. F., Ballestar E., Paz M. F., Roper S., Setlen F., Ballestar M. L. (2005). Epigenetic differences arise during the lifetime of monozygotic twins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102 10604–10609. 10.1073/pnas.0500398102
    1. Gagrani M., Faiq M. A., Sidhu T., Dada R., Yadav R. K., Sihota R., et al. (2018). Meditation enhances brain oxygenation, upregulates BDNF and improves quality of life in patients with primary open angle glaucoma: a randomized control trial. Rest. Neurol. Neurosci. 36 741–753. 10.3233/rnn-180857
    1. Gapp K., Bohacek J., Grossman J., Brunner A. M., Manuella F., Nanni P., et al. (2016). Potential of environmental enrichment to prevent transgenerational effects of paternal trauma. Neuropsychopharmacology 41, 2749–2758. 10.1038/npp.2016.87
    1. García-Campayo J., Puebla-Guedea M., Labarga A., Urdánoz A., Roldán M., Pulido L., et al. (2018). Epigenetic response to mindfulness in peripheral blood leukocytes involves genes linked to common human disease. Mindfulness 9 1146–1159. 10.1007/s12671-017-0851-6
    1. Hannum G., Guinney J., Zhao L., Zhang L., Hughes G., Sadda S., et al. (2013). Genome-wide methylation profiles reveal quantitative views of human aging rates. Mol. Cell 49 359–367. 10.1016/j.molcel.2012.10.016
    1. Harkess K. N., Ryan J., Delfabbro P. H., Cohen-Woods S. (2016). Preliminary indications of the effects of a brief Yoga intervention on markers of inflammation and DNA methylation in chronically stressed women. Transl. Psychiatry 6:e965. 10.1038/tp.2016.234
    1. Ho L., Bloom P. A., Vega J. G., Yemul S., Zhao W., Ward L., et al. (2016). Biomarkeers of resilience in stress reduction for caregivers of Alzheimer’s patients. Neuromol. Med. 18 177–189. 10.1007/s.12017-016-8388-8
    1. Househam A. M., Peterson C. T., Mills P. J., Chopra D. (2017). The effects of stress and meditation on the immune system, human microbiota, and epigenetics. Adv. Mind Body Med. 31 10–25.
    1. Hovarth S. (2013). DNA methylation age of human tissues and cell types. Genome Biol. 14:R115. 10.1186/gb-2013-14-10-r115
    1. Irwin M. R., Olmstead R., Breen E. C., Witarama T., Carrillo C., Sadeghi N., et al. (2014). Tai Chi, cellular inflammation, and transcriptomic dynamics in breast cancer survivors with insomnia: a randomized controlled trial. J. Nat. Cancer Inst. Monogr. 2014 295–301. 10.1093/jncimonographs/lgu028
    1. Irwin M. R., Olmstead R., Breen E. C., Witarama T., Carrillo C., Sadeghi N., et al. (2015). Cognitive behavioral therapy and Tai Chi reverse cellular and genomic markers of inflammationin late-life insomnia: a randomized controlled trial. Biol. Psychiatry 78 721–729. 10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.01.010
    1. Kabat-Zinn J. (1982). An outpatient program in behavioral medicine for chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulness meditation: theoretical considerations and preliminary results. Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry 4 33–47. 10.1016/0163-8343(82)90026-3
    1. Kaliman P. (2019). Epigenetics and meditation. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 28 76–80. 10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.11.010
    1. Kaliman P., Alvarez-Lopez M. J., Cosìn-Tomas M., Rosenkranz M. A., Lutz A., Davidson R. J. (2014). Rapid changes in histone deacetylases and inflammatory gene expression in expert meditators. Psychoneuroendocrinology 40 96–107. 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.11.004
    1. Kasala E. R., Bodduluru L. N., Maneti Y., Thipparaboina R. (2014). Effect of meditation on neurophysiological changes in stress mediated depression. Compl. Ther. Clin. Pract. 20 74–80. 10.1016/j.ctcp.2013.10.001
    1. Kinney A. Y., Blair C. K., Guest D. D., Ani J. K., Harding E. M., Amorim F., et al. (2019). Biobehavioral effect of Tai Chi Qigong in men with prostate cancer: study design of a three-arm randomized clinical trial. Contemp. Clin. Trials Commun. 16:100431. 10.1016/j.conctc.2019.100431
    1. Kumar A., Balkrishna A. (2009). To study the effect of the sequence of seven Pranayama by Swami Ramdev on gene expression in leukaemia patients and rapid interpretation of gene expression. J. Clin. Pathol. 62 1052–1053. 10.1136/cp.2008.061580
    1. Kuo B., Bhasin M., Jacquart J., Scult M. A., Slipp I., Riklin E. I. K., et al. (2015). Genomic and clinical effects associated with a relaxation response mind-body intervention in patients with irritable bowel syndrome and inflammatory bowel disease. PLoS One 10:e0123861. 10.1371/journal.pone.0123861
    1. Lasaponara S., Mauro F., Carducci F., Paoletti P., Tombini M., Quattrocchi C. C., et al. (2017). Increased alpha band functional connectivity following the Quadrato Motor Training: a longitudinal study. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 11:282. 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00282
    1. Lee D. J., Kulubya E., Goldin P., Goodarzi A., Girgis A. (2018). Review of the neural oscillation underlying meditation. Front. Neurosci. 12:178. 10.3389/fnins.2018.00178
    1. Lee M. S., Kang C.-W., Lim H.-J., Lee M.-S. (2004). Effects of Qi-training on anxiety and plasma concentrations of cortisol, ACTH, and aldosterone: a randomized placebo-controlled pilot study. Stress Health 20 243–248. 10.1002/smi.1023
    1. Li Q. Z., Li P., Garcia G. F., Johnson R. J., Feng L. (2005). Genomic profile of neutrophil transcripts in Asian Qigong practitioners: a pilot study in gene regulation by mind-body interaction. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 11 29–39. 10.1089/acm.2005.11.29
    1. McCreary J. K., Erickson Z. T., Hao Y. X., Ilnytskyy Y., Kovalchuk I., Metz G. A. S. (2016). Environmental intervention as a therapy for adverse programming by ancestral stress. Sci. Rep. 6:37814. 10.1038/srep37814
    1. McGowan P. O., Kato T. (2008). Epigenetics in mood disorders. Environ. Health Prev. Med. 13 16–24. 10.1007/s12199-007-0002-0
    1. Misztak P., Pańczyszyn-Trzewik P., Sowa-Kućma M. (2018). Histone deacetylases (HDACs) as therapeutic target for depressive disorders. Pharmacol. Rep. 70 398–408. 10.1016/j.pharep.2017.08.001
    1. Mohammad A., Thakur P., Kumar R., Kaur S., Saini R. V., Saini A. (2019). Biological markers for the effects of yoga as a complementary and alternative medicine. J. Compl. Integr. Med. 16:20180094. 10.1515/jcim-2018-0094
    1. Naumova O. Y., Lee M., Koposov R., Szyf M., Dozier M., Grigorenko E. L. (2012). Differential pattern of whole-genome DNA methylation in institutionalized children and children raised by their biological parents. Dev. Psychopathol. 24 143–155. 10.1017/s0954579411000605
    1. Naveen G. H., Thirtalli J., Rao M. G., Varambally S., Christopher R., Gangadhar B. N. (2013). Positive therapeutic and neurotropic effects of Yoga in depression: a comparative study. Indian J. Psychiatry 55(Suppl. 3) S400–S404. 10.4103/0019-5545.116312
    1. Naveen G. H., Varambally S., Thirtalli J., Rao M. G., Christopher R., Gangadhar B. N. (2016). Serum cortisol and BDNF in patients with major depression – effect of Yoga. Int. Rev. Psychiatry 28 273–278. 10.1080/09540261.2016.1175419
    1. Pal R., Singh S. N., Chatterjee A., Saha M. (2014). Age-related changes in cardiovascular system, autonomic functions, and levels of BDNF on healthy active males: role of yogic practice. Age 36:9683. 10.1007/s11357-014-9683-7
    1. Pan N. L., Liao C. F., Jiang M. J., Lu H. P., Wang C. L., Huang A. M. (2006). “Serum levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor before and after the practice of pranayama and Sudarshan Kriya,” in Expanding Paradigms: Science, Consciousness, and Spirituality, ed. Kochupillai V. (New Delhi: All India Institute of Medical Sciences; ), 156–160.
    1. Paoletti P., Glicksohn J., Ben-Soussan T. D. (2017). “Inner design technology: improved affect by quadrato motor training,” in The Amygdala – Where Emotions Shape Perception, Learning and Memories, ed. Ferry B. (London: IntechOpen; ), 27–41. 10.5772/67586
    1. Pascoe M. C., Thompson D. R., Jenkins Z. M., Ski C. F. (2017). Mindfulness mediates the physiological markers of stress: systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Psychiatric Res. 95 156–178. 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.08.004
    1. Piervincenzi C., Ben-Soussan T. D., Mauro F., Mallio C. A., Errante Y., Quattrocchi C. C., et al. (2017). White matter microstructural changes following Quadrato Motor Training: a longitudinal study. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 11:590. 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00590
    1. Provençal N., Suderman M. J., Caramaschi D., Wang D., Hallett M., Vitaro F., et al. (2013). Differential DNA methylation in cytokine and transcription factor genomic loci associate with childhood physical aggression. PLoS One 8:e71691. 10.1371/journal.pone.0071691
    1. Qu S., Olafsrud S. M., Meza-Zepeda L. A., Saatcioglu F. (2013). Rapid gene expression changes in peripheral blood lymphocytes upon practice of a comprehensive Yoga program. PLoS One 8:e61910. 10.1371/journal.pone.0061910
    1. Quach A., Levine M. E., Tanaka T., Lu A. T., Chen B. H., Ferrucci L., et al. (2017). Epigenetic clock analysis of diet, exercise, education, and lifestyle factors. Aging 9 419–437. 10.11/j.1532-5415.2000.tb03873.x
    1. Ravnik-Glavač M., Hrašovec S., Bon J., Dreu J., Glavaè D. (2012). Genome-wide expression changes in higher state of consciousness. Conscious. Cogn. 21 1322–1344. 10.1016/j.concog.2012.06.003
    1. Ren H., Collins V., Clarke S. J., Han J.-S., Lam P., Clay F., et al. (2012). Epigenetic changes in response to Tai Chi practice: a pilot investigation of DNA methylation marks. Evid. Bas. Compl. Alt. Med. 2012:841810. 10.1155/2012/841810
    1. Robert-McComb J. J., Cisneros A., Tacón A., Panike R., Norman R., Qian X.-P., et al. (2015). The effects of mindfulness-based movement on parameters of stress. Int. J. Yoga Ther. 25 79–88.
    1. Roth T. L., Sweatt J. D. (2011). Epigenetic marking of the BDNF gene by early-life adverse experience. Horm. Behav. 59 315–320. 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.05.005
    1. Roth T. L., Zoladz P. R., Sweatt J. D., Diamond D. M. (2011). Epigenetic modifications of hippocampal Bdnf DNA in adult rats in an animal model of post-traumatic stress disorder. J. Psychiatric Res. 45 919–926. 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.01.013
    1. Ryu H., Lee H. S., Shin Y. S., Chung S. M., Lee M. S., Kim H. M., et al. (1996). Acute effect of qigong training on stress hormonal levels in man. Am. J. Chin. Med. 24 193–198. 10.1142/S0192415X96000256
    1. Sharma H., Datta P., Singh A., Sen S., Bhardwaj N. K., Kochupillai V., et al. (2008). Gene expression profiling in practitioners of Sudarshan Kriya. J. Psychosom. Res. 64 213–218. 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2007.07.003
    1. Szyf M. (2012). Mind-body interrelationship in DNA methylation. Chem. Immunol. Allergy 98 86–100. 10.1159/000336503
    1. Tang Y.-Y., Posner M. I. (2014). Training brain networks and states. Trends Cogn. Sci. 18 345–350. 10.1016/j.tics2014.04.002
    1. Tolahunase M., Sagar R., Dada R. (2017). Impact of Yoga and meditation on cellular aging in apparently healthy individuals: a prospective, open-label single-arm exploratory study. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 2017:928981.
    1. Turecki G., Meaney M. J. (2016). Effects of the social environment and stress on glucocorticoid receptor gene methylation: a systematic review. Biol. Psychiatry 79 87–96. 10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.11.022
    1. Twal W. O., Wahlquist A. H., Balasubramanian S. (2016). Yogic breathing when compared to attention control reduces the levels of pro-inflammatory biomarkers in saliva: a randomized control trial. BMC Compl. Alt. Med. 16:294. 10.1186/s12906-016-1286-7
    1. Tyrka A. R., Ridout K. K., Parade S. H. (2016). Childhood adversity and epigenetic regulation of glucocorticoid signaling genes: association in children and adults. Dev. Psychopathol. 28 1319–1331. 10.1017/S0954579416000870
    1. Venditti S., Verdone L., Pesce C., Tocci T., Caserta M., Ben-Soussan T. D. (2015). Creating well-being: increased creativity and proNGF decrease following Quadrato Motor Training. BioMed Res. Int. 2015:275062. 10.1155/2015/275062
    1. Wallace R. K., Benson H., Wilson A. F. (1971). A wakeful hypometabolic physiologic state. Am. J. Physiol. 221 795–799. 10.1152/ajplegacy.1971.221.3.795
    1. Weaver I. C., Cervoni N., Champagne F. A., D’Alessio A. C., Sharma S., Seckl J. R., et al. (2004). Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior. Nat. Neurosci. 7 847–854. 10.1038/nn1276
    1. World Health Organization (2011). Burden of Disease from Environmental Noise: Quantification of Healthy Life Years Lost in Europe. København: World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe.
    1. Yuan H., Mischoulon D., Fava M., Otto M. W. (2018). Circulating microRNAs as biomarkers for depression: many candidates, few finalists. J. Affect. Disord. 233 68–78. 10.1016/j.jad.2017.06.058

Source: PubMed

Patrocinadores y Colaboradores

Condiciones médicas

Intervenciones de drogas

3
Suscribir