The Neuroprotective Effects of Astaxanthin: Therapeutic Targets and Clinical Perspective

Sajad Fakhri, Ina Yosifova Aneva, Mohammad Hosein Farzaei, Eduardo Sobarzo-Sánchez, Sajad Fakhri, Ina Yosifova Aneva, Mohammad Hosein Farzaei, Eduardo Sobarzo-Sánchez

Abstract

As the leading causes of human disability and mortality, neurological diseases affect millions of people worldwide and are on the rise. Although the general roles of several signaling pathways in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders have so far been identified, the exact pathophysiology of neuronal disorders and their effective treatments have not yet been precisely elucidated. This requires multi-target treatments, which should simultaneously attenuate neuronal inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. In this regard, astaxanthin (AST) has gained growing interest as a multi-target pharmacological agent against neurological disorders including Parkinson's disease (PD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), brain and spinal cord injuries, neuropathic pain (NP), aging, depression, and autism. The present review highlights the neuroprotective effects of AST mainly based on its anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and anti-apoptotic properties that underlies its pharmacological mechanisms of action to tackle neurodegeneration. The need to develop novel AST delivery systems, including nanoformulations, targeted therapy, and beyond, is also considered.

Keywords: apoptosis; astaxanthin; drug delivery system; neurodegenerative diseases; neuroinflammation; neuroprotective agent; oxidative stress; pharmacology.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declared no conflicts of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Chemical structure of Astaxanthin (AST).
Figure 2
Figure 2
Neuroprotective mechanisms of AST. NR2B: N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor 2B, Chemokine R: Chemokine receptor, HO-1: heme oxygenase-1, GST-α1: glutathione-s-transferase-α1, NQO-1: NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase-1, MDA: malondialdehyde, ARE: antioxidant response elements, PI3K/AKT: phosphoinositide 3-Kinase/AKT, p-ERK/ERK: phosphorylated extracellular regulated protein kinase/extracellular regulated protein kinase ratio, MIF: macrophage migration inhibitory factor, ICAM1: Intercellular adhesion molecule 1, MMP: Matrix metallopeptidase, TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor alpha, NOS: Nitric oxide synthase, COX: Cyclooxygenase, IL: Interlukine, Bax/Bcl2: Bax/Bcl2 ratio, and AST: astaxanthin.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Novel AST delivery systems. O/W: oil in water, W/O: water in oil, SLNs: solid lipid nanoparticles, NLCs: nanostructured lipid carriers, and AST: astaxanthin.

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