Healthy versus Unhealthy Suppliers in Food Desert Neighborhoods: A Network Analysis of Corner Stores' Food Supplier Networks

Yeeli Mui, Bruce Y Lee, Atif Adam, Anna Y Kharmats, Nadine Budd, Claudia Nau, Joel Gittelsohn, Yeeli Mui, Bruce Y Lee, Atif Adam, Anna Y Kharmats, Nadine Budd, Claudia Nau, Joel Gittelsohn

Abstract

Background: Products in corner stores may be affected by the network of suppliers from which storeowners procure food and beverages. To date, this supplier network has not been well characterized.

Methods: Using network analysis, we examined the connections between corner stores (n = 24) in food deserts of Baltimore City (MD, USA) and their food/beverage suppliers (n = 42), to determine how different store and supplier characteristics correlated.

Results: Food and beverage suppliers fell into two categories: Those providing primarily healthy foods/beverages (n = 15) in the healthy supplier network (HSN) and those providing primarily unhealthy food/beverages (n = 41) in the unhealthy supplier network (UHSN). Corner store connections to suppliers in the UHSN were nearly two times greater (t = 5.23, p < 0.001), and key suppliers in the UHSN core were more diverse, compared to the HSN. The UHSN was significantly more cohesive and densely connected, with corner stores sharing a greater number of the same unhealthy suppliers, compared to HSN, which was less cohesive and sparsely connected (t = 5.82; p < 0.001). Compared to African Americans, Asian and Hispanic corner storeowners had on average -1.53 (p < 0.001) fewer connections to suppliers in the HSN (p < 0.001).

Conclusions: Our findings indicate clear differences between corner stores' HSN and UHSN. Addressing ethnic/cultural differences of storeowners may also be important to consider.

Keywords: corner store; food deserts; food environment; food supply; healthy food availability; network analysis; obesity; urban health.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
(a) Two-mode sociogram depicting relationships in corner stores’ unhealthy supplier network (UHSN) in Baltimore City, MD; triangles represent the food and beverage suppliers in corner stores’ UHSN (red triangles are core suppliers); circles represent the corner stores; edges (line) represent a connection between a corner store and a supplier; (b) Two-mode sociogram depicting relationships in corner stores’ healthy supplier network (HSN) in Baltimore City, MD; triangles represent the food and beverage suppliers in corner stores’ HSN (red triangles are core suppliers); circles represent corner stores; edges (line) represent a connection between a corner store and a supplier.
Figure 2
Figure 2
(a) One-mode sociogram depicting corner stores’ shared suppliers in the UHSN; Note: Circles represent corner stores; edges (line) represent at least one shared supplier between any given pair of corner stores; (b) One-mode sociogram depicting corner stores’ shared suppliers in the HSN. Note: Circles represent corner stores; edges (line) represent at least one shared supplier between any given pair of corner stores.

References

    1. Drewnowski A., Rehm C.D. Energy intakes of US children and adults by food purchase location and by specific food source. Nutr. J. 2013;12 doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-12-59.
    1. Adjoian T., Dannefer R., Sacks R., van Wye G. Comparing sugary drinks in the food retail environment in six NYC neighborhoods. J. Community Health. 2013;39:327–335. doi: 10.1007/s10900-013-9765-y.
    1. Laska M.N., Borradaile K.E., Tester J., Foster G.D., Gittelsohn J. Healthy food availability in small urban food stores: A comparison of four US cities. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:1031–1035. doi: 10.1017/S1368980009992771.
    1. D’Angelo H., Suratkar S., Song H.J., Stauffer E., Gittelsohn J. Access to food source and food source use are associated with healthy and unhealthy food-purchasing behaviours among low-income African-American adults in Baltimore City. Public Health Nutr. 2011;14:1632–1639. doi: 10.1017/S1368980011000498.
    1. Powell L.M., Auld M.C., Chaloupka F.J., O’Malley P.M., Johnston L.D. Associations between access to food stores and adolescent body mass index. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2007;33:S301–S307. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2007.07.007.
    1. Cummins S. Food environments and obesity—Neighbourhood or nation? Int. J. Epidemiol. 2005;35:100–104. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyi276.
    1. Ogden C.L., Carroll M.D., Kit B.K., Flegal K.M. Prevalence of childhood and adult obesity in the United States, 2011–2012. JAMA. 2014;311:806–814. doi: 10.1001/jama.2014.732.
    1. Ogden C.L., Carroll M.D., Kit B.K., Flegal K.M. Prevalence of obesity and trends in body mass index among US children and adolescents, 1999–2010. JAMA. 2012;307:483–490. doi: 10.1001/jama.2012.40.
    1. Mokdad A.H., Ford E.S., Bowman B.A., Dietz W.H., Vinicor F., Bales V.S., Marks J.S. Prevalence of obesity, diabetes, and obesity-related health risk factors, 2001. JAMA. 2003;289:76–79. doi: 10.1001/jama.289.1.76.
    1. Must A., Spadano J., Coakley E.H., Field A.E., Colditz G., Dietz W.H. The disease burden associated with overweight and obesity. JAMA. 1999;282:1523–1529. doi: 10.1001/jama.282.16.1523.
    1. Puhl R.M., Heuer C.A. Obesity stigma: Important considerations for public health. Am. J. Public Health. 2010;100:1019–1028. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2009.159491.
    1. Zenk S.N., Odoms-Young A.M., Dallas C., Hardy E., Watkins A., Hoskins-Wroten J., Holland L. “You have to hunt for the fruits, the vegetables”: Environmental barriers and adaptive strategies to acquire food in a low-income African American neighborhood. Health Educ. Behav. 2011;38:282–292. doi: 10.1177/1090198110372877.
    1. Drewnowski A. Obesity and the food environment: Dietary energy density and diet costs. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2004;27:154–162. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2004.06.011.
    1. Franco M., Diez Roux A.V., Nettleton J.A., Lazo M., Brancati F., Caballero B., Glass T., Moore L.V. Availability of healthy foods and dietary patterns: The multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009;89:897–904. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2008.26434.
    1. Larson N.I., Story M.T., Nelson M.C. Neighborhood environments: Disparities in access to healthy foods in the US. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2009;36:74–81. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2008.09.025.
    1. Gittelsohn J., Song H.J., Suratkar S., Kumar M.B., Henry E.G., Sharma S., Mattingly M., Anliker J.A. An urban food store intervention positively affects food-related psychosocial variables and food behaviors. Health Educ. Behav. 2010;37:390–402. doi: 10.1177/1090198109343886.
    1. Gittelsohn J., Suratkar S., Song H.J., Sacher S., Rajan R., Rasooly I.R., Bednarek E., Sharma S., Anliker J.A. Process evaluation of Baltimore healthy stores: A pilot health intervention program with supermarkets and corner stores in Baltimore City. Health Promot. Pract. 2010;11:723–732. doi: 10.1177/1524839908329118.
    1. LiveWell Colorado 2009 Annual Report. [(accessed on 23 January 2015)]. Available online: .
    1. Healthy Bodegas Initiative: A Program of the Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. [(accessed on 23 January 2015)]; Available online: .
    1. Samuels S.E., Craypo L., Boyle M., Crawford P.B., Yancey A., Flores G. The California endowment’s healthy eating, active communities program: A midpoint review. Am. J. Public Health. 2010;100:2114–2123. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2010.192781.
    1. Gittelsohn J., Anderson Steeves E., Mui Y., Kharmats A.Y., Hopkins L.C., Dennis D. B’More healthy communities for kids: Design of a multi-level intervention for obesity prevention for low-income African American children. BMC Public Health. 2014;14 doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-14-942.
    1. Ayala G.X., Baquero B., Laraia B.A., Ji M., Linnan L. Efficacy of a store-based environmental change intervention compared with a delayed treatment control condition on store customers’ intake of fruits and vegetables. Public Health Nutr. 2013;16:1953–1960. doi: 10.1017/S1368980013000955.
    1. Gittelsohn J., Rowan M., Gadhoke P. Interventions in small food stores to change the food environment, improve diet, and reduce risk of chronic disease. Prev. Chronic Dis. 2012;9 doi: 10.5888/pcd9.110015.
    1. Gittelsohn J., Mui Y., Adam A., Lin S., Kharmats A., Igusa T., Lee B.Y. Incorporating systems science principles into the development of obesity prevention interventions: Principles, benefits, and challenges. Curr. Obes. Rep. 2015;4:174–181. doi: 10.1007/s13679-015-0147-x.
    1. Luke D.A., Stamatakis K.A. Systems science methods in public health: Dynamics, networks, and agents. Annu. Rev. Public Health. 2012;33:357–376. doi: 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031210-101222.
    1. Andreyeva T., Middleton A.E., Long M.W., Luedicke J., Schwartz M.B. Food retailer practices, attitudes and beliefs about the supply of healthy foods. Public Health Nutr. 2011;14:1024–1031. doi: 10.1017/S1368980011000061.
    1. Budd N., Cuccia A., Jeffries J.K., Prasad D., Frick K.D., Powell L., Katz F.A., Gittelsohn J. B’More healthy: Retail rewards—Design of a multi-level communications and pricing intervention to improve the food environment in Baltimore City. BMC Public Health. 2015;15 doi: 10.1186/s12889-015-1616-6.
    1. U.S. Census Bureau . State & County Quickfacts; Baltimore, MD, USA: [(accessed on 7 April 2015)]. Available online: .
    1. Office of Epidemiology and Planning, Baltimore City Health Department . Baltimore City Health Disparities Report Card, 2010. Baltimore City Health Department; Baltimore, MD, USA: 2010.
    1. Franco M., Diez Roux A.V., Glass T.A., Caballero B., Brancati F.L. Neighborhood characteristics and availability of healthy foods in Baltimore. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2008;35:561–567. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2008.07.003.
    1. Gittelsohn J., Dennisuk L.A., Christiansen K., Bhimani R., Johnson A., Alexander E., Lee M., Lee S.H., Rowan M., Coutinho A.J. Development and implementation of Baltimore healthy eating zones: A youth-targeted intervention to improve the urban food environment. Health Educ. Res. 2013;28:732–744. doi: 10.1093/her/cyt066.
    1. Occupational Safety and Health Administration, United States Department of Labor Standard Industrial Classification Division Structure: Food Stores. [(accessed on 3 March 2014)]; Available online: .
    1. Borgatti S.P., Mehra A., Brass D.J., Labianca G. Network analysis in the social sciences. Science. 2009;323:892–895. doi: 10.1126/science.1165821.
    1. Luke D.A., Harris J.K. Network analysis in public health: History, methods, and applications. Annu. Rev. Public Health. 2007;28:69–93. doi: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.28.021406.144132.
    1. Bettinger J.A., Adler N.E., Curriero F.C., Ellen J.M. Risk perceptions, condom use, and sexually transmitted diseases among adolescent females according to social network position. Sex. Transm. Dis. 2004;31:575–579. doi: 10.1097/01.olq.0000137906.01779.55.
    1. Berkman L.F. Assessing the physical health effects of social networks and social support. Annu. Rev. Public Health. 1984;5:413–432. doi: 10.1146/annurev.pu.05.050184.002213.
    1. Kessler R.C., Price R.H., Wortman C.B. Social-factors in psychopathology—Stress, social support, and coping processes. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 1985;36:531–572. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ps.36.020185.002531.
    1. Lee B.Y., McGlone S.M., Song Y., Avery T.R., Eubank S., Chang C.C., Bailey R.R., Wagener D.K., Burke D.S., Platt R., et al. Social network analysis of patient sharing among hospitals in Orange County, California. Am. J. Public Health. 2011;101:707–713. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2010.202754.
    1. Lurie S.J., Fogg T.T., Dozier A.M. Social network analysis as a method of assessing institutional culture: Three case studies. Acad. Med. 2009;84:1029–1035. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181ad16d3.
    1. Kapucu N. Interorganizational coordination in dynamic context: Networks in emergency response management. Connections. 2005;26:33–48.
    1. Krauss M., Mueller N., Luke D. Interorganizational Relationships within State Tobacco Control Networks: A Social Network Analysis. [(accessed on 25 November 2015)]; Available online: .
    1. De Nooy W., Mrvar A., Batagelj V. Exploratory Social Network Analysis with Pajek. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press; Cambridge, UK: 2011.
    1. Leung C.W., Ding E.L., Catalano P.J., Villamor E., Rimm E.B., Willett W.C. Dietary intake and dietary quality of low-income adults in the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2012;96:977–988. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.112.040014.
    1. Whaley S.E., Ritchie L.D., Spector P., Gomez J. Revised WIC food package improves diets of WIC families. J. Nutr. Educ. Behav. 2012;44:204–209. doi: 10.1016/j.jneb.2011.09.011.
    1. Gittelsohn J., Franceschini M.C.T., Rasooly I.R., Ries A.V., Ho L.S., Pavlovich W., Santos V.T., Jennings S.M., Frick K.D. Understanding the food environment in a low-income urban setting: Implications for food store interventions. J. Hunger Environ. Nutr. 2008;2:33–50. doi: 10.1080/19320240801891438.
    1. Walker R.E., Keane C.R., Burke J.G. Disparities and access to healthy food in the United States: A review of food deserts literature. Health Place. 2010;16:876–884. doi: 10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.04.013.
    1. Hendrickson D., Smith C., Eikenberry N. Fruit and vegetable access in four low-income food deserts communities in Minnesota. Agric. Hum. Values. 2006;23:371–383. doi: 10.1007/s10460-006-9002-8.
    1. Bassuk E.L., Buckner J.C., Weinreb L.F., Browne A., Bassuk S.S., Dawson R., Perloff J.N. Homelessness in female-headed families: Childhood and adult risk and protective factors. Am. J. Public Health. 1997;87:241–248. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.87.2.241.
    1. Pirog R., Harper A., Gerencer M., Lelle M., Gerencer C. The Michigan Food Hub Network: A Case Study in Building Effective Networks for Food Systems Change. MSU Center for Regional Food Systems; Cambridge, UK: 2014.
    1. The Food Trust for the Healthy Corner Stores Network Healthy Corner Stores Issue Brief: The Supplier-Retailer Gap: Connecting Corner Stores with Local Foods. [(accessed on 12 March 2014)]. Available online: .
    1. Song H.J., Gittelsohn J., Kim M., Suratkar S., Sharma S., Anliker J. Korean American storeowners’ perceived barriers and motivators for implementing a corner store-based program. Health Promot. Pract. 2011;12:472–482. doi: 10.1177/1524839910364369.

Source: PubMed

Patrocinadores y Colaboradores

Condiciones médicas

Intervenciones de drogas

3
Suscribir