Lymph node imaging in initial staging of prostate cancer: An overview and update

Jessica G Zarzour, Sam Galgano, Jonathan McConathy, John V Thomas, Soroush Rais-Bahrami, Jessica G Zarzour, Sam Galgano, Jonathan McConathy, John V Thomas, Soroush Rais-Bahrami

Abstract

Accurate nodal staging at the time of diagnosis of prostate cancer is crucial in determining a treatment plan for the patient. Pelvic lymph node dissection is the most reliable method, but is less than perfect and has increased morbidity. Cross sectional imaging with computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are non-invasive tools that rely on morphologic characteristics such as shape and size of the lymph nodes. However, lymph nodes harboring metastatic disease may be normal sized and non-metastatic lymph nodes may be enlarged due to reactive hyperplasia. The optimal strategy for preoperative staging remains a topic of ongoing research. Advanced imaging techniques to assess lymph nodes in the setting of prostate cancer utilizing novel MRI contrast agents as well as positron emission tomography (PET) tracers have been developed and continue to be studied. Magnetic resonance lymphography utilizing ultra-small super paramagnetic iron oxide has shown promising results in detection of metastatic lymph nodes. Combining MRL with diffusion-weighted imaging may also improve accuracy. Considerable efforts are being made to develop effective PET radiotracers that are performed using hybrid-imaging systems that combine PET with CT or MRI. PET tracers that will be reviewed in this article include [18F]fluoro-D-glucose, sodium [18F]fluoride, [18F]choline, [11C]choline, prostate specific membrane antigen binding ligands, [11C]acetate, [18F]fluciclovine, gastrin releasing peptide receptor ligands, and androgen binding receptors. This article will review these advanced imaging modalities and ability to detect prostate cancer metastasis to lymph nodes. While more research is needed, these novel techniques to image lymph nodes in the setting of prostate cancer show a promising future in improving initial lymph node staging.

Keywords: Lymph nodes; Magnetic resonance imaging; Molecular imaging; Positron emission tomography; Prostate cancer; Staging; Ultra-small super paramagnetic iron oxide.

Conflict of interest statement

Conflict-of-interest statement: The authors have no conflicts of interests to declare.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Selected imaged from a ferumoxytol enhanced magnetic resonance imaging in a 59-year-old man who underwent transrectal ultrasonography prostate biopsy for elevated PSA (10.8 ng/mL) which showed Gleason 3 + 4 disease of 4 cores. A: Initial prostate multiparametric T1 weighted post gadolinium magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed a 1.8 cm × 0.9 cm right external iliac chain lymph node that was suspicious base on size criteria (arrowhead); B: 24 h post injection of ferumoxytol (7.5 Fe/kg dose), T2* weighted MRI showed decreased signal intensity within the node (arrowhead), consistent with uptake of ferumoxytol. This was considered a benign lymph node based on these results. The patient underwent computed tomography guided biopsy for confirmation and the node was negative for malignancy.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Selected images from a ferumoxytol enhanced magnetic resonance imaging in a 65 years old man status post magnetic resonance imaging/ultrasound fusion guided prostate biopsy revealing 3 + 3 prostate cancer and PSA 16.6 ng/mL. A: Baseline T2* weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed a rounded lymph node anterior to the bladder (arrowhead) that measured 1.5 cm and was hyperintense. Lobular mass like lesion (arrow) lateral to the suspicious lymph node corresponds to hernia mesh; B: 24 h post injection of ferumoxytol (7.5 Fe/kg dose) enhanced MRI shows persistent heterogeneous hyperintensity within the node (arrowhead). The lack of ferumoxytol uptake within the node was suspicious for malignant involvement. Pathology revealed castleman's disease (false positive). Arrow again indicates hernia mesh.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Prostate specific membrane antigen. Selected images from a [68Ga]PSMA-11-PET/CT study performed prior to therapy in a man with biopsy-proven Gleason 9 prostate adenocarcinoma, a serum PSA of 11.6 ng/mL, and a clinical tumor stage of cT2b. The anterior maximum intensity projection (MIP) image (A) and the axial PET (B), fusion (C), and CT (D) images through the pelvis demonstrate focal activity in a left external iliac lymph node. This appearance is highly suspicious for a lymph node metastasis. Images courtesy of Tom Hope, MD, University of California San Francisco, Department of Radiology. PSMA: Prostate specific membrane antigen; PET/CT: Positron emission tomography/computed tomography.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Fluciclovine. Selected images from a (18F)fluciclovine-positron emission tomography/computed tomography study performed in a man who underwent prostatectomy for Gleason 8 prostate adenocarcinoma 11 years ago. He developed biochemical recurrence with a serum PSA of 0.8 ng/mL and a PSA doubling time of 14 mo at the time of the (18F)fluciclovine-PET/CT study. The anterior maximum intensity projection (MIP) image (A) and the axial PET (B), fusion (C), and CT (D) images near the level of the pelvic inlet demonstrate focal activity in a subcentimeter right common iliac lymph node. This appearance is highly suspicious for a lymph node metastasis. Images courtesy of Ephraim Parent MD, PhD, and David Schuster, MD, Emory University, Department of Radiology. PET/CT: Positron emission tomography/computed tomography.

References

    1. Hövels AM, Heesakkers RA, Adang EM, Jager GJ, Strum S, Hoogeveen YL, Severens JL, Barentsz JO. The diagnostic accuracy of CT and MRI in the staging of pelvic lymph nodes in patients with prostate cancer: a meta-analysis. Clin Radiol. 2008;63:387–395.
    1. Kothari PS, Scardino PT, Ohori M, Kattan MW, Wheeler TM. Incidence, location, and significance of periprostatic and periseminal vesicle lymph nodes in prostate cancer. Am J Surg Pathol. 2001;25:1429–1432.
    1. Makarov DV, Trock BJ, Humphreys EB, Mangold LA, Walsh PC, Epstein JI, Partin AW. Updated nomogram to predict pathologic stage of prostate cancer given prostate-specific antigen level, clinical stage, and biopsy Gleason score (Partin tables) based on cases from 2000 to 2005. Urology. 2007;69:1095–1101.
    1. D’Amico AV, Whittington R, Malkowicz SB, Schultz D, Schnall M, Tomaszewski JE, Wein A. Combined modality staging of prostate carcinoma and its utility in predicting pathologic stage and postoperative prostate specific antigen failure. Urology. 1997;49:23–30.
    1. D’Amico AV. Combined-modality staging for localized adenocarcinoma of the prostate. Oncology (Williston Park) 2001;15:1049–1059; discussion 1060-106, 1064-1065, 1069-1070, 1073-1075.
    1. Loeb S, Catalona WJ. The Prostate Health Index: a new test for the detection of prostate cancer. Ther Adv Urol. 2014;6:74–77.
    1. McDonald ML, Parsons JK. 4-Kallikrein Test and Kallikrein Markers in Prostate Cancer Screening. Urol Clin North Am. 2016;43:39–46.
    1. Allaf ME, Palapattu GS, Trock BJ, Carter HB, Walsh PC. Anatomical extent of lymph node dissection: impact on men with clinically localized prostate cancer. J Urol. 2004;172:1840–1844.
    1. Burkhard FC, Studer UE. The role of lymphadenectomy in prostate cancer. Urol Oncol. 2004;22:198–202; discussion 202-204.
    1. McDowell GC 2nd, Johnson JW, Tenney DM, Johnson DE. Pelvic lymphadenectomy for staging clinically localized prostate cancer. Indications, complications, and results in 217 cases. Urology. 1990;35:476–482.
    1. Schuessler WW, Pharand D, Vancaillie TG. Laparoscopic standard pelvic node dissection for carcinoma of the prostate: is it accurate? J Urol. 1993;150:898–901.
    1. Joniau S, Van den Bergh L, Lerut E, Deroose CM, Haustermans K, Oyen R, Budiharto T, Ameye F, Bogaerts K, Van Poppel H. Mapping of pelvic lymph node metastases in prostate cancer. Eur Urol. 2013;63:450–458.
    1. Jager GJ, Barentsz JO, Oosterhof GO, Witjes JA, Ruijs SJ. Pelvic adenopathy in prostatic and urinary bladder carcinoma: MR imaging with a three-dimensional TI-weighted magnetization-prepared-rapid gradient-echo sequence. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1996;167:1503–1507.
    1. Davis GL. Sensitivity of frozen section examination of pelvic lymph nodes for metastatic prostate carcinoma. Cancer. 1995;76:661–668.
    1. Harisinghani MG, Barentsz J, Hahn PF, Deserno WM, Tabatabaei S, van de Kaa CH, de la Rosette J, Weissleder R. Noninvasive detection of clinically occult lymph-node metastases in prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:2491–2499.
    1. Bellin MF, Roy C, Kinkel K, Thoumas D, Zaim S, Vanel D, Tuchmann C, Richard F, Jacqmin D, Delcourt A, et al. Lymph node metastases: safety and effectiveness of MR imaging with ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide particles--initial clinical experience. Radiology. 1998;207:799–808.
    1. Weissleder R, Elizondo G, Wittenberg J, Lee AS, Josephson L, Brady TJ. Ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide: an intravenous contrast agent for assessing lymph nodes with MR imaging. Radiology. 1990;175:494–498.
    1. Wunderbaldinger P, Josephson L, Bremer C, Moore A, Weissleder R. Detection of lymph node metastases by contrast-enhanced MRI in an experimental model. Magn Reson Med. 2002;47:292–297.
    1. Hricak H, Choyke PL, Eberhardt SC, Leibel SA, Scardino PT. Imaging prostate cancer: a multidisciplinary perspective. Radiology. 2007;243:28–53.
    1. Fortuin AS, Deserno WM, Meijer HJ, Jager GJ, Takahashi S, Debats OA, Reske SN, Schick C, Krause BJ, van Oort I, et al. Value of PET/CT and MR lymphography in treatment of prostate cancer patients with lymph node metastases. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2012;84:712–718.
    1. Harisinghani MG, Saini S, Slater GJ, Schnall MD, Rifkin MD. MR imaging of pelvic lymph nodes in primary pelvic carcinoma with ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide (Combidex): preliminary observations. J Magn Reson Imaging. 1997;7:161–163.
    1. Harisinghani MG, Saksena MA, Hahn PF, King B, Kim J, Torabi MT, Weissleder R. Ferumoxtran-10-enhanced MR lymphangiography: does contrast-enhanced imaging alone suffice for accurate lymph node characterization? AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2006;186:144–148.
    1. Heesakkers RA, Hövels AM, Jager GJ, van den Bosch HC, Witjes JA, Raat HP, Severens JL, Adang EM, van der Kaa CH, Fütterer JJ, et al. MRI with a lymph-node-specific contrast agent as an alternative to CT scan and lymph-node dissection in patients with prostate cancer: a prospective multicohort study. Lancet Oncol. 2008;9:850–856.
    1. Heesakkers RA, Jager GJ, Hövels AM, de Hoop B, van den Bosch HC, Raat F, Witjes JA, Mulders PF, van der Kaa CH, Barentsz JO. Prostate cancer: detection of lymph node metastases outside the routine surgical area with ferumoxtran-10-enhanced MR imaging. Radiology. 2009;251:408–414.
    1. Ross RW, Zietman AL, Xie W, Coen JJ, Dahl DM, Shipley WU, Kaufman DS, Islam T, Guimaraes AR, Weissleder R, et al. Lymphotropic nanoparticle-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (LNMRI) identifies occult lymph node metastases in prostate cancer patients prior to salvage radiation therapy. Clin Imaging. 2009;33:301–305.
    1. Froehlich JM, Triantafyllou M, Fleischmann A, Vermathen P, Thalmann GN, Thoeny HC. Does quantification of USPIO uptake-related signal loss allow differentiation of benign and malignant normal-sized pelvic lymph nodes? Contrast Media Mol Imaging. 2012;7:346–355.
    1. Thoeny HC, Triantafyllou M, Birkhaeuser FD, Froehlich JM, Tshering DW, Binser T, Fleischmann A, Vermathen P, Studer UE. Combined ultrasmall superparamagnetic particles of iron oxide-enhanced and diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging reliably detect pelvic lymph node metastases in normal-sized nodes of bladder and prostate cancer patients. Eur Urol. 2009;55:761–769.
    1. Triantafyllou M, Studer UE, Birkhäuser FD, Fleischmann A, Bains LJ, Petralia G, Christe A, Froehlich JM, Thoeny HC. Ultrasmall superparamagnetic particles of iron oxide allow for the detection of metastases in normal sized pelvic lymph nodes of patients with bladder and/or prostate cancer. Eur J Cancer. 2013;49:616–624.
    1. Heesakkers RA, Fütterer JJ, Hövels AM, van den Bosch HC, Scheenen TW, Hoogeveen YL, Barentsz JO. Prostate cancer evaluated with ferumoxtran-10-enhanced T2*-weighted MR Imaging at 1.5 and 3.0 T: early experience. Radiology. 2006;239:481–487.
    1. Birkhäuser FD, Studer UE, Froehlich JM, Triantafyllou M, Bains LJ, Petralia G, Vermathen P, Fleischmann A, Thoeny HC. Combined ultrasmall superparamagnetic particles of iron oxide-enhanced and diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging facilitates detection of metastases in normal-sized pelvic lymph nodes of patients with bladder and prostate cancer. Eur Urol. 2013;64:953–960.
    1. Meijer HJ, Debats OA, van Lin EN, Witjes JA, Kaanders JH, Barentsz JO. A retrospective analysis of the prognosis of prostate cancer patients with lymph node involvement on MR lymphography: who might be cured. Radiat Oncol. 2013;8:190.
    1. Meijer HJ, Debats OA, Kunze-Busch M, van Kollenburg P, Leer JW, Witjes JA, Kaanders JH, Barentsz JO, van Lin EN. Magnetic resonance lymphography-guided selective high-dose lymph node irradiation in prostate cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2012;82:175–183.
    1. Pisansky TM, Kozelsky TF, Myers RP, Hillman DW, Blute ML, Buskirk SJ, Cheville JC, Ferrigni RG, Schild SE. Radiotherapy for isolated serum prostate specific antigen elevation after prostatectomy for prostate cancer. J Urol. 2000;163:845–850.
    1. George AK, Turkbey B, Valayil SG, Muthigi A, Mertan F, Kongnyuy M, Pinto PA. A urologist’s perspective on prostate cancer imaging: past, present, and future. Abdom Radiol (NY) 2016;41:805–816.
    1. Turkbey B, Agarwal HK, Shih J, Bernardo M, McKinney YL, Daar D, Griffiths GL, Sankineni S, Johnson L, Grant KB, et al. A Phase I Dosing Study of Ferumoxytol for MR Lymphography at 3 T in Patients With Prostate Cancer. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2015;205:64–69.
    1. Vasanawala SS, Nguyen KL, Hope MD, Bridges MD, Hope TA, Reeder SB, Bashir MR. Safety and technique of ferumoxytol administration for MRI. Magn Reson Med. 2016;75:2107–2111.
    1. Pai AB, Garba AO. Ferumoxytol: a silver lining in the treatment of anemia of chronic kidney disease or another dark cloud? J Blood Med. 2012;3:77–85.
    1. Bailie GR. Comparison of rates of reported adverse events associated with i.v. iron products in the United States. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2012;69:310–320.
    1. Santosh S, Podaralla P, Miller B. Anaphylaxis with elevated serum tryptase after administration of intravenous ferumoxytol. NDT Plus. 2010;3:341–342.
    1. FDA Drug Safety Communication: FDA strengthens warnings and changes prescribing instructions to decrease the risk of serious allergic reactions with anemia drug Feraheme. 2015, accessed December 5 2016. Available from: .
    1. Bashir MR, Bhatti L, Marin D, Nelson RC. Emerging applications for ferumoxytol as a contrast agent in MRI. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2015;41:884–898.
    1. Debats OA, Fortuin AS, Meijer HJ, Hambrock T, Litjens GJ, Barentsz JO, Huisman HJ. Intranodal signal suppression in pelvic MR lymphography of prostate cancer patients: a quantitative comparison of ferumoxtran-10 and ferumoxytol. PeerJ. 2016;4:e2471.
    1. Sankineni S, Smedley J, Bernardo M, Brown AM, Johnson L, Muller B, Griffiths GL, Kobayashi H, Rais-Bahrami S, Pinto PA, et al. Ferumoxytol as an intraprostatic MR contrast agent for lymph node mapping of the prostate: a feasibility study in non-human primates. Acta Radiol. 2016;57:1396–1401.
    1. Saokar A, Braschi M, Harisinghani M. Lymphotrophic nanoparticle enhanced MR imaging (LNMRI) for lymph node imaging. Abdom Imaging. 2006;31:660–667.
    1. Roy C, Bierry G, Matau A, Bazille G, Pasquali R. Value of diffusion-weighted imaging to detect small malignant pelvic lymph nodes at 3 T. Eur Radiol. 2010;20:1803–1811.
    1. Eiber M, Beer AJ, Holzapfel K, Tauber R, Ganter C, Weirich G, Krause BJ, Rummeny EJ, Gaa J. Preliminary results for characterization of pelvic lymph nodes in patients with prostate cancer by diffusion-weighted MR-imaging. Invest Radiol. 2010;45:15–23.
    1. Akduman EI, Momtahen AJ, Balci NC, Mahajann N, Havlioglu N, Wolverson MK. Comparison between malignant and benign abdominal lymph nodes on diffusion-weighted imaging. Acad Radiol. 2008;15:641–646.
    1. Budiharto T, Joniau S, Lerut E, Van den Bergh L, Mottaghy F, Deroose CM, Oyen R, Ameye F, Bogaerts K, Haustermans K, et al. Prospective evaluation of 11C-choline positron emission tomography/computed tomography and diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging for the nodal staging of prostate cancer with a high risk of lymph node metastases. Eur Urol. 2011;60:125–130.
    1. Sumi M, Van Cauteren M, Nakamura T. MR microimaging of benign and malignant nodes in the neck. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2006;186:749–757.
    1. Choi EK, Kim JK, Choi HJ, Park SH, Park BW, Kim N, Kim JS, Im KC, Cho G, Cho KS. Node-by-node correlation between MR and PET/CT in patients with uterine cervical cancer: diffusion-weighted imaging vs size-based criteria on T2WI. Eur Radiol. 2009;19:2024–2032.
    1. Thoeny HC, Froehlich JM, Triantafyllou M, Huesler J, Bains LJ, Vermathen P, Fleischmann A, Studer UE. Metastases in normal-sized pelvic lymph nodes: detection with diffusion-weighted MR imaging. Radiology. 2014;273:125–135.
    1. von Below C, Daouacher G, Wassberg C, Grzegorek R, Gestblom C, Sörensen J, Ahlström H, Waldén M. Validation of 3 T MRI including diffusion-weighted imaging for nodal staging of newly diagnosed intermediate- and high-risk prostate cancer. Clin Radiol. 2016;71:328–334.
    1. Giannarini G, Petralia G, Thoeny HC. Potential and limitations of diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging in kidney, prostate, and bladder cancer including pelvic lymph node staging: a critical analysis of the literature. Eur Urol. 2012;61:326–340.
    1. Heck MM, Souvatzoglou M, Retz M, Nawroth R, Kübler H, Maurer T, Thalgott M, Gramer BM, Weirich G, Rondak IC, et al. Prospective comparison of computed tomography, diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging and [11C]choline positron emission tomography/computed tomography for preoperative lymph node staging in prostate cancer patients. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2014;41:694–701.
    1. Fortuin A, Rooij Md, Zamecnik P, Haberkorn U, Barentsz J. Molecular and functional imaging for detection of lymph node metastases in prostate cancer. Int J Mol Sci. 2013;14:13842–13875.
    1. Ghanem N, Uhl M, Brink I, Schäfer O, Kelly T, Moser E, Langer M. Diagnostic value of MRI in comparison to scintigraphy, PET, MS-CT and PET/CT for the detection of metastases of bone. Eur J Radiol. 2005;55:41–55.
    1. Shreve PD, Grossman HB, Gross MD, Wahl RL. Metastatic prostate cancer: initial findings of PET with 2-deoxy-2-[F-18]fluoro-D-glucose. Radiology. 1996;199:751–756.
    1. Tateishi U, Morita S, Taguri M, Shizukuishi K, Minamimoto R, Kawaguchi M, Murano T, Terauchi T, Inoue T, Kim EE. A meta-analysis of (18)F-Fluoride positron emission tomography for assessment of metastatic bone tumor. Ann Nucl Med. 2010;24:523–531.
    1. Ackerstaff E, Glunde K, Bhujwalla ZM. Choline phospholipid metabolism: a target in cancer cells? J Cell Biochem. 2003;90:525–533.
    1. Evangelista L, Guttilla A, Zattoni F, Muzzio PC, Zattoni F. Utility of choline positron emission tomography/computed tomography for lymph node involvement identification in intermediate- to high-risk prostate cancer: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Eur Urol. 2013;63:1040–1048.
    1. Van den Bergh L, Lerut E, Haustermans K, Deroose CM, Oyen R, Isebaert S, Budiharto T, Ameye F, Mottaghy FM, Bogaerts K, et al. Final analysis of a prospective trial on functional imaging for nodal staging in patients with prostate cancer at high risk for lymph node involvement. Urol Oncol. 2015;33:109.e23–109.e31.
    1. Tilki D, Reich O, Graser A, Hacker M, Silchinger J, Becker AJ, Khoder W, Bartenstein P, Stief CG, Loidl W, et al. 18F-Fluoroethylcholine PET/CT identifies lymph node metastasis in patients with prostate-specific antigen failure after radical prostatectomy but underestimates its extent. Eur Urol. 2013;63:792–796.
    1. Vali R, Loidl W, Pirich C, Langesteger W, Beheshti M. Imaging of prostate cancer with PET/CT using (18)F-Fluorocholine. Am J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2015;5:96–108.
    1. Wetter A, Lipponer C, Nensa F, Beiderwellen K, Olbricht T, Rübben H, Bockisch A, Schlosser T, Heusner TA, Lauenstein TC. Simultaneous 18F choline positron emission tomography/magnetic resonance imaging of the prostate: initial results. Invest Radiol. 2013;48:256–262.
    1. Pinaquy JB, De Clermont-Galleran H, Pasticier G, Rigou G, Alberti N, Hindie E, Mokrane Y, Fernandez P. Comparative effectiveness of [(18) F]-fluorocholine PET-CT and pelvic MRI with diffusion-weighted imaging for staging in patients with high-risk prostate cancer. Prostate. 2015;75:323–331.
    1. Rinnab L, Simon J, Hautmann RE, Cronauer MV, Hohl K, Buck AK, Reske SN, Mottaghy FM. [(11)C]choline PET/CT in prostate cancer patients with biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy. World J Urol. 2009;27:619–625.
    1. Giovacchini G, Picchio M, Coradeschi E, Bettinardi V, Gianolli L, Scattoni V, Cozzarini C, Di Muzio N, Rigatti P, Fazio F, et al. Predictive factors of [(11)C]choline PET/CT in patients with biochemical failure after radical prostatectomy. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2010;37:301–309.
    1. Vāvere AL, Kridel SJ, Wheeler FB, Lewis JS. 1-11C-acetate as a PET radiopharmaceutical for imaging fatty acid synthase expression in prostate cancer. J Nucl Med. 2008;49:327–334.
    1. Haseebuddin M, Dehdashti F, Siegel BA, Liu J, Roth EB, Nepple KG, Siegel CL, Fischer KC, Kibel AS, Andriole GL, et al. 11C-acetate PET/CT before radical prostatectomy: nodal staging and treatment failure prediction. J Nucl Med. 2013;54:699–706.
    1. Ghosh A, Heston WD. Tumor target prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA) and its regulation in prostate cancer. J Cell Biochem. 2004;91:528–539.
    1. Rosenthal SA, Haseman MK, Polascik TJ. Utility of capromab pendetide (ProstaScint) imaging in the management of prostate cancer. Tech Urol. 2001;7:27–37.
    1. Ponsky LE, Cherullo EE, Starkey R, Nelson D, Neumann D, Zippe CD. Evaluation of preoperative ProstaScint scans in the prediction of nodal disease. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2002;5:132–135.
    1. Hardie AD, Rieter WJ, Bradshaw ML, Gordon LL, Young MA, Keane TE. Improved performance of SPECT-CT In-111 capromab pendetide by correlation with diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging for identifying metastatic pelvic lymphadenopathy in prostate cancer. World J Urol. 2013;31:1327–1332.
    1. Troyer JK, Beckett ML, Wright GL Jr. Location of prostate-specific membrane antigen in the LNCaP prostate carcinoma cell line. Prostate. 1997;30:232–242.
    1. Osborne JR, Akhtar NH, Vallabhajosula S, Anand A, Deh K, Tagawa ST. Prostate-specific membrane antigen-based imaging. Urol Oncol. 2013;31:144–154.
    1. Rowe SP, Gorin MA, Allaf ME, Pienta KJ, Tran PT, Pomper MG, Ross AE, Cho SY. PET imaging of prostate-specific membrane antigen in prostate cancer: current state of the art and future challenges. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2016;19:223–230.
    1. Rowe SP, Macura KJ, Ciarallo A, Mena E, Blackford A, Nadal R, Antonarakis ES, Eisenberger MA, Carducci MA, Ross AE, et al. Comparison of Prostate-Specific Membrane Antigen-Based 18F-DCFBC PET/CT to Conventional Imaging Modalities for Detection of Hormone-Naïve and Castration-Resistant Metastatic Prostate Cancer. J Nucl Med. 2016;57:46–53.
    1. Eder M, Eisenhut M, Babich J, Haberkorn U. PSMA as a target for radiolabelled small molecules. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2013;40:819–823.
    1. Maurer T, Gschwend JE, Rauscher I, Souvatzoglou M, Haller B, Weirich G, Wester HJ, Heck M, Kübler H, Beer AJ, et al. Diagnostic Efficacy of (68)Gallium-PSMA Positron Emission Tomography Compared to Conventional Imaging for Lymph Node Staging of 130 Consecutive Patients with Intermediate to High Risk Prostate Cancer. J Urol. 2016;195:1436–1443.
    1. Budäus L, Leyh-Bannurah SR, Salomon G, Michl U, Heinzer H, Huland H, Graefen M, Steuber T, Rosenbaum C. Initial Experience of (68)Ga-PSMA PET/CT Imaging in High-risk Prostate Cancer Patients Prior to Radical Prostatectomy. Eur Urol. 2016;69:393–396.
    1. Schuster DM, Nanni C, Fanti S. Evaluation of Prostate Cancer with Radiolabeled Amino Acid Analogs. J Nucl Med. 2016;57:61S–66S.
    1. Odewole OA, Tade FI, Nieh PT, Savir-Baruch B, Jani AB, Master VA, Rossi PJ, Halkar RK, Osunkoya AO, Akin-Akintayo O, et al. Recurrent prostate cancer detection with anti-3-[(18)F]FACBC PET/CT: comparison with CT. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2016;43:1773–1783.
    1. Suzuki H, Inoue Y, Fujimoto H, Yonese J, Tanabe K, Fukasawa S, Inoue T, Saito S, Ueno M, Otaka A. Diagnostic performance and safety of NMK36 (trans-1-amino-3-[18F] fluorocyclobutanecarboxylic acid)-PET/CT in primary prostate pancer: multicenter Phase IIb clinical trial. Jpn J Clin Oncol. 2017;47:283.
    1. Wibmer AG, Burger IA, Sala E, Hricak H, Weber WA, Vargas HA. Molecular Imaging of Prostate Cancer. Radiographics. 2016;36:142–159.
    1. Mansi R, Fleischmann A, Mäcke HR, Reubi JC. Targeting GRPR in urological cancers--from basic research to clinical application. Nat Rev Urol. 2013;10:235–244.
    1. Dijkgraaf I, Franssen GM, McBride WJ, D’Souza CA, Laverman P, Smith CJ, Goldenberg DM, Oyen WJ, Boerman OC. PET of tumors expressing gastrin-releasing peptide receptor with an 18F-labeled bombesin analog. J Nucl Med. 2012;53:947–952.
    1. Zhang H, Abiraj K, Thorek DL, Waser B, Smith-Jones PM, Honer M, Reubi JC, Maecke HR. Evolution of bombesin conjugates for targeted PET imaging of tumors. PLoS One. 2012;7:e44046.
    1. Kähkönen E, Jambor I, Kemppainen J, Lehtiö K, Grönroos TJ, Kuisma A, Luoto P, Sipilä HJ, Tolvanen T, Alanen K, et al. In vivo imaging of prostate cancer using [68Ga]-labeled bombesin analog BAY86-7548. Clin Cancer Res. 2013;19:5434–5443.
    1. Larson SM, Morris M, Gunther I, Beattie B, Humm JL, Akhurst TA, Finn RD, Erdi Y, Pentlow K, Dyke J, et al. Tumor localization of 16beta-18F-fluoro-5alpha-dihydrotestosterone vs 18F-FDG in patients with progressive, metastatic prostate cancer. J Nucl Med. 2004;45:366–373.
    1. Rahbar K, Ahmadzadehfar H, Kratochwil C, Haberkorn U, Schäfers M, Essler M, Baum RP, Kulkarni HR, Schmidt M, Drzezga A, et al. German Multicenter Study Investigating 177Lu-PSMA-617 Radioligand Therapy in Advanced Prostate Cancer Patients. J Nucl Med. 2017;58:85–90.
    1. Chatalic KL, Konijnenberg M, Nonnekens J, de Blois E, Hoeben S, de Ridder C, Brunel L, Fehrentz JA, Martinez J, van Gent DC, et al. In Vivo Stabilization of a Gastrin-Releasing Peptide Receptor Antagonist Enhances PET Imaging and Radionuclide Therapy of Prostate Cancer in Preclinical Studies. Theranostics. 2016;6:104–117.

Source: PubMed

Patrocinadores y Colaboradores

Condiciones médicas

Intervenciones de drogas

3
Suscribir