Psychological impact of covid-19 crises on students through the lens of Stimulus-Organism-Response (SOR) model

Shailesh Pandita, Hari Govind Mishra, Shagun Chib, Shailesh Pandita, Hari Govind Mishra, Shagun Chib

Abstract

The present outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic has affected 28,584,158 people world-wide as of 13th September 2020 (WHO, 2020b). This crisis has created an atmosphere of uncertainty and fear. Due to the unavailability of the evidence based medical treatment, non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) are the best options at the present moment. Lockdown was one of such measures to control the spread of the Covid-19 disease. Due to lockdown measures, many countries across the globe followed the complete closure of shopping malls, transport networks, schools, universities, etc. This study aims to investigate the behavioural psychological changes among university students due to covid-19 crises and lockdown. Stimulus-Organism-Response (SOR) model has been adopted to develop a theoretical foundation for the research. Qualitative research methodology including a combination of personal interviews and focus groups has been adopted in the study to develop the themes with the help of computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software, Atlas.ti 7. It has been found that students are suffering from academic anxiety, fear, Mysophobia, etc. As far as behavioural responses are concerned following behavioural changes have been found; Panic buying, e-learning, community support, support for prime-minister, etc.

Keywords: Atlas.ti; Behavioural responses; Covid-19; Qualitative methodology; S-O-R model.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Optimism level of different countries during Covid-19 pandemic (Source: McKinsey & Company, 2020).
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Theoretical framework of the study.
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Final Themes generated in Atlas.ti 7.
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
Sample description including gender, age, and streams.
Fig. 5
Fig. 5
Steps of Thematic analysis included in the study.

References

    1. Ahorsu D.K., Lin C.Y., Imani V., Saffari M., Griffiths M.D., Pakpour A.H. The fear of COVID-19 scale: Development and initial validation. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. 2020 doi: 10.1007/s11469-020-00270-8.
    1. Alvarez, F., Argente, D., Lippi, F., Chang, R., Velasco, A., Alé-Chilet, … Peña, W. (2020). A simple planning problem for Covid-19 lockdown. In C. Wyplosz, GIG, & CEPR (Eds.), Covid economics vetted and real-time papers (1st ed., pp. 1–32). Centre For Economic Policy Research.
    1. Asilah, E., Hazwani, H., Asyikin, H., Dahlan, A., Azila, A., Saiful, B., … Azila Azmi, S. B. M. K. (2016). Factors influencing online hotel booking intention: A conceptual framework from stimulus-organism-response perspective. International Academic Research Journal of Business and Technology, 2(2), 129–134.
    1. Bagozzi R.P. 1st ed. Science Research Associates; 1986. Principles of marketing management.
    1. Banerjee D. The COVID-19 outbreak: Crucial role the psychiatrists can play. Asian Journal of Psychiatry. 2020;50:102014. doi: 10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102014.
    1. Basu, A., Roy, A., Hazra, A. K., & Pramanick, K. (2020). Analysis of youths’ perspective in India on and during the pandemic of Covid -19. SocArXiv. 10.31235/.
    1. Van Bavel J.J., Baicker K., Boggio P.S., Capraro V., Cichocka A., Cikara M.…Willer R. Using social and behavioural science to support COVID-19 pandemic response. Nature Human Behaviour. 2020;4(5):460–471. doi: 10.1038/s41562-020-0884-z.
    1. Betsch C., Wieler L.H., Habersaat K. Monitoring behavioural insights related to COVID-19. The Lancet. 2020;395(10232):1255–1256. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30729-7.
    1. Bora, G. (2020). Ola, Uber resume services in select cities. Economic Times. .
    1. Boserup B., McKenney M., Elkbuli A. Alarming trends in US domestic violence during the COVID-19 pandemic. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2020;91(20):3–5. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2020.04.077.
    1. Braun V., Clarke V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology. 2006;3(2):77–101. doi: 10.1191/1478088706qp063oa.
    1. Brooks S.K., Webster R.K., Smith L.E., Woodland L., Wessely S., Greenberg N., Rubin G.J. The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence. The Lancet. 2020;395(10227):912–920. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8.
    1. Brown R.B. 1st ed. SAGE Publications Ltd.; 2006. Doing Your Dissertation in Business and Management: The Reality of Researching and Writing (SAGE Study Skills Series)
    1. Campbell A.M. An increasing risk of family violence during the Covid-19 pandemic: Strengthening community collaborations to save lives. Forensic Science International: Reports. 2020;2(April):100089. doi: 10.1016/j.fsir.2020.100089.
    1. Cao W., Fang Z., Hou G., Han M., Xu X., Dong J., Zheng J. The psychological impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on college students in China. Psychiatry Research. 2020;287(March):112934. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112934.
    1. CCSA (2020). How COVID-19 is changing the world: a statistical perspective.
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2017). Quarantine and isolation. CDC. .
    1. Chang H.-J., Eckman M., Yan R.-N. Application of the Stimulus-Organism-Response model to the retail environment: The role of hedonic motivation in impulse buying behavior. The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research. 2011;21(3):233–249. doi: 10.1080/09593969.2011.578798.
    1. Chen C.-C., Yao J.-Y. What drives impulse buying behaviors in a mobile auction? The perspective of the Stimulus-Organism-Response model. Telematics and Informatics. 2018;35(5):1249–1262. doi: 10.1016/j.tele.2018.02.007.
    1. Choudhary R. Economic Times; 2020. COVID-19 Pandemic: Impact and strategies for education sector in India.
    1. CMIE (2020). Unemployment rate in India. Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy. .
    1. Del Valle S., Hethcote H., Hyman J.M., Castillo-Chavez C. Effects of behavioral changes in a smallpox attack model. Mathematical Biosciences. 2005;195(2):228–251. doi: 10.1016/j.mbs.2005.03.006.
    1. DePietro, A. (2020). Here’s a look at the impact of coronavirus (COVID-19) on colleges and universities. InThe U.S. Forbes. .
    1. Donovan R., Rossiter J. Store atmosphere: An environmental psychology approach. Journal of Retailing. 1982;58(1):34–57.
    1. Eroglu S.A., Machleit K.A., Davis L.M. Atmospheric qualities of online retailing. Journal of Business Research. 2001;54(2):177–184. doi: 10.1016/S0148-2963(99)00087-9.
    1. Ferguson N. Capturing human behaviour. Nature. 2007;446(7137):733. doi: 10.1038/446733a.
    1. Fu S., Chen X., Zheng H. Exploring an adverse impact of smartphone overuse on academic performance via health issues: A stimulus-organism-response perspective. Behaviour & Information Technology. 2020:1–13. doi: 10.1080/0144929X.2020.1716848.
    1. Gibson Miller J., Hartman T.K., Levita L., Martinez A.P., Mason L., McBride O.…Bentall R.P. Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID-19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology. 2020:bjhp.12426. doi: 10.1111/bjhp.12426.
    1. Haefner D.P., Kirscht J.P. Motivational and behavioral effects of modifying health beliefs. Public Health Reports. 1970;85(6):478. doi: 10.2307/4593885.
    1. Haleem A., Javaid M., Vaishya R., Deshmukh S.G. Areas of academic research with the impact of COVID-19. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2020:5–7. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2020.04.022.
    1. Harper C.A., Satchell L.P., Fido D., Latzman R.D. Functional Fear predicts public health compliance in the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. 2020 doi: 10.1007/s11469-020-00281-5.
    1. Hochbaum G.M. 1st ed. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Public Health Service; 1958. Public participation in medical screening programs; a socio-psychological study.
    1. Hussain A. Hindustan Times; 2020. Covid-19: Amid pandemic, snapped internet services in Kashmir irk professionals, students.
    1. IANYD (2020). Statement on Covid-19 & Youth.
    1. ILO (2020). Global employment trends for youth 2020: Technology and the future of jobs.
    1. Jacoby J. Stimulus-organism-response reconsidered: An evolutionary step in modeling (consumer) behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology. 2002;12(1):51–57. doi: 10.1207/S15327663JCP1201_05.
    1. Jeronimus, B. F. (2020). Personality and coronavirus 2019 pandemic. University of Groningen Press. 10.21827/5ed9ebc01d65f.
    1. Kouzy R., Abi Jaoude J., Kraitem A., El Alam M.B., Karam B., Adib E., Zarka J., Traboulsi C., Akl E., Baddour K. Coronavirus goes viral: Quantifying the COVID-19 misinformation epidemic on twitter. Cureus. 2020;12(3):e7255. doi: 10.7759/cureus.7255.
    1. Kudla N.L., Klaas-Wissing T. Sustainability in shipper-logistics service provider relationships: A tentative taxonomy based on agency theory and stimulus-response analysis. Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management. 2012;18(4):218–231. doi: 10.1016/j.pursup.2012.04.001.
    1. Lambert S.D., Loiselle C.G. Combining individual interviews and focus groups to enhance data richness. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 2008;62(2):228–237. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04559.x.
    1. Lau H., Khosrawipour V., Kocbach P., Mikolajczyk A., Schubert J., Bania J., Khosrawipour T. The positive impact of lockdown in Wuhan on containing the COVID-19 outbreak in China. Journal of Travel Medicine. 2020;27(3):1–7. doi: 10.1093/jtm/taaa037.
    1. LeDoux J. Rethinking the emotional brain. Neuron. 2012;73(4):653–676. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2012.02.004.
    1. Li S., Wang Y., Xue J., Zhao N., Zhu T. The impact of COVID-19 epidemic declaration on psychological consequences: A study on active weibo users. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020;17(6):2032. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17062032.
    1. Maiman L.A., Becker M.H. The health belief model: Origins and correlates in psychological theory. Health Education Monographs. 1974;2(4):336–353. doi: 10.1177/109019817400200404.
    1. Mamun M.A., Griffiths M.D. First COVID-19 suicide case in Bangladesh due to fear of COVID-19 and xenophobia: Possible suicide prevention strategies. Asian Journal of Psychiatry. 2020;51:102073. doi: 10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102073.
    1. Mamun M.A., Ullah I. COVID-19 suicides in Pakistan, dying off not COVID-19 fear but poverty? – The forthcoming economic challenges for a developing country. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 2020 doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.028.
    1. Mboera L.E.G., Akipede G.O., Banerjee A., Cuevas L.E., Czypionka T., Khan M., Urassa …M. Mitigating lockdown challenges in response to COVID-19 in Sub-Saharan Africa. International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2020;96:308–310. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2020.05.018.
    1. McKinsey & Company . McKinsey & Company; 2020. Consumer sentiment is evolving as countries around the world begin to reopen.
    1. Menon U., Szalacha L. The international encyclopedia of communication. John Wiley & Sons Ltd; 2008. Health Belief Model; pp. 1–4.
    1. MHA (2020). Ministry of Home Affairs. .
    1. Michie, S., West, R., & Amlôt, R. (2020). Behavioural strategies for reducing covid-19 transmission in the general population. .
    1. Ministry of Human Resouce Development (2019). All India Survey on Higher Education 2018–2019.
    1. MoHFW (2020). Ministry of Health and Family Welfare Government of India. .
    1. Morgan D.L. 1st ed. SAGE Publications; 1998. The focus group guidebook.
    1. Moses N.V. Hindustan Times; 2020. Covid-19: India is staring at a mental health crisis.
    1. Muhammad S., Long X., Salman M. COVID-19 pandemic and environmental pollution: A blessing in disguise? Science of the Total Environment. 2020;728:138820. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138820.
    1. Mukhtar S. Mental health and emotional impact of COVID-19: Applying Health Belief Model for medical staff to general public of Pakistan. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 2020 doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.04.012.
    1. Ornell F., Schuch J.B., Sordi A.O., Kessler F.H.P. “Pandemic fear” and COVID-19: Mental health burden and strategies. Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry. 2020;42(3):232–235. doi: 10.1590/1516-4446-2020-0008.
    1. Pakpour A.H., Griffiths M.D. The fear of COVID-19 and its role in preventive behaviors. Journal of Concurrent Disorders. 2020;2:58–63. doi: 10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004.
    1. Pang X. Evaluation of control measures implemented in the severe acute respiratory syndrome outbreak in Beijing, 2003. JAMA. 2003;290(24):3215. doi: 10.1001/jama.290.24.3215.
    1. Pavlov I.P. 1st ed. Oxford University Press; 1927. Conditioned reflexes: An investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex” Translated by GV Anrep.
    1. Peng C., Kim Y.G. Application of the stimuli-organism-response (S-O-R) framework to online shopping behavior. Journal of Internet Commerce. 2014;13(3–4):159–176. doi: 10.1080/15332861.2014.944437.
    1. Prentice-Dunn S., Rogers R.W. Protection Motivation Theory and preventive health: Beyond the Health Belief Model. Health Education Research. 1986;1(3):153–161. doi: 10.1093/her/1.3.153.
    1. Press Information Bureau All Universities must constitute a special cell to address various issues of students arising out of special circumstances due to Covid 19. Ministry of Human Resource Development. 2020:1–58.
    1. Qiu J., Shen B., Zhao M., Wang Z., Xie B., Xu Y. A nationwide survey of psychological distress among Chinese people in the COVID-19 epidemic: Implications and policy recommendations. General Psychiatry. 2020;33(2):e100213. doi: 10.1136/gpsych-2020-100213.
    1. QS (2020). The impact of the coronavirus on global higher education.
    1. Rishi M., Gaur S.S. Emerging sales and marketing challenges in the global hospitality industry. Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes. 2012;4(2):131–149. doi: 10.1108/17554211211217316.
    1. Rosenstock I.M., Strecher V.J., Becker M.H. Social learning theory and the health belief model. Health Education Quarterly. 1988;15(2):175–183. doi: 10.1177/109019818801500203.
    1. Rosenstock, I. M., Strecher, V. J., & Becker, M. H. (1994). The health belief model and HIV risk behavior change. In Preventing AIDS (pp. 5–24). 10.1007/978-1-4899-1193-3_2.
    1. Roy D., Tripathy S., Kar S.K., Sharma N., Verma S.K., Kaushal V. Study of knowledge, attitude, anxiety & perceived mental healthcare need in Indian population during COVID-19 pandemic. Asian Journal of Psychiatry. 2020;51:102083. doi: 10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102083.
    1. Sahoo S., Rani S., Parveen S., Pal Singh A., Mehra A., Chakrabarti S., Grover S., Tandup C. Self-harm and COVID-19 Pandemic: An emerging concern – A report of 2 cases from India. Asian Journal of Psychiatry. 2020;51:102104. doi: 10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102104.
    1. Sahu P. Closure of universities due to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): Impact on education and mental health of students and academic staff. Cureus. 2020;12(4):e7541. doi: 10.7759/cureus.7541.
    1. Sailesh S., Goothy K., Goothy S., Chakraborty H. COVID-19 lockdown impact on the mental health of students : Need to start a mental health cell. MOJ Anatomy & Physiology. 2020;7(2):51–52. doi: 10.15406/mojap.2020.07.00289.
    1. Schaeffer K., Rainie L. Pew Research Center; 2020. Experiences with the COVID-19 outbreak can vary for Americans of different ages.
    1. Skinner B.F. The Generic Nature of the Concepts of Stimulus and Response. The Journal of General Psychology. 1935;12(1):40–65. doi: 10.1080/00221309.1935.9920087.
    1. Smith G.D., Ng F., HoCheung Li W. COVID-19: Emerging compassion, courage and resilience in the face of misinformation and adversity. Journal of Clinical Nursing. 2020;29(9–10):1425–1428. doi: 10.1111/jocn.15231.
    1. Spence K.W. Cognitive versus stimulus-response theories of learning. Psychological Review. 1950;57(3):159–172. doi: 10.1037/h0058250.
    1. Suess C., Mody M. The influence of hospitable design and service on patient responses. The Service Industries Journal. 2018;38(1–2):127–147. doi: 10.1080/02642069.2017.1385773.
    1. Torales J., O’Higgins M., Castaldelli-Maia J.M., Ventriglio A. The outbreak of COVID-19 coronavirus and its impact on global mental health. International Journal of Social Psychiatry. 2020 doi: 10.1177/0020764020915212. 002076402091521.
    1. Ul Islam J., Rahman Z. The impact of online brand community characteristics on customer engagement: An application of Stimulus-Organism-Response paradigm. Telematics and Informatics. 2017;34(4):96–109. doi: 10.1016/j.tele.2017.01.004.
    1. UN Women (2020). COVID-19 and ending violence against women and girls.
    1. UNESCO . United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization; 2020. Exams and assessments in COVID-19 crisis: Fairness at the centre.
    1. UNESCO & IESALC . IESALC; 2020. COVID-19 and higher education: Today and tomorrow. Impact analysis, policy responses and recommendations; pp. 1–46.
    1. United Nations (2015). World population prospects. .
    1. United Nations . United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Youth; 2020. Protecting and mobilizing youth in COVID-19 responses.
    1. Verma P., Venugopalan A. The Economic Times; 2020. Covid-19 fallout: Online classes elude many due to lack to laptops, tablets.
    1. Viner R.M., Russell S.J., Croker H., Packer J., Ward J., Stansfield C., Booy …R. School closure and management practices during coronavirus outbreaks including COVID-19: A rapid systematic review. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health. 2020;4(5):397–404. doi: 10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30095-X.
    1. Webb L. Covid-19 lockdown: A perfect storm for older people’s mental health. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing. 2020 doi: 10.1111/jpm.12644. jpm.12644.
    1. WHO (2020a). Looking after our mental health. World Health Organization. .
    1. WHO. (2020b). WHO Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) dashboard. World Health Organization. .
    1. Woodworth R. 2nd ed. Henry Holt; 1929. Psychology (revised edition)
    1. Young G. Unifying causality and psychology. Springer International Publishing; 2016. Stimulus–organism–response model: SORing to new heights; pp. 699–717.
    1. Zhu N., Zhang D., Wang W., Li X., Yang B., Song J., Tan …W. A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019. New England Journal of Medicine. 2020;382(8):727–733. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2001017.

Source: PubMed

Patrocinadores y Colaboradores

Condiciones médicas

Intervenciones de drogas

3
Suscribir