Attitudes Toward Transgender Men and Women: Development and Validation of a New Measure

Thomas J Billard, Thomas J Billard

Abstract

A series of three studies were conducted to generate, develop, and validate the Attitudes toward Transgender Men and Women (ATTMW) scale. In Study 1, 120 American adults responded to an open-ended questionnaire probing various dimensions of their perceptions of transgender individuals and identity. Qualitative thematic analysis generated 200 items based on their responses. In Study 2, 238 American adults completed a questionnaire consisting of the generated items. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) revealed two non-identical 12-item subscales (ATTM and ATTW) of the full 24-item scale. In Study 3, 150 undergraduate students completed a survey containing the ATTMW and a number of validity-testing variables. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) verified the single-factor structures of the ATTM and ATTW subscales, and the convergent, discriminant, predictive, and concurrent validities of the ATTMW were also established. Together, our results demonstrate that the ATTMW is a reliable and valid measure of attitudes toward transgender individuals.

Keywords: attitudes; prejudice; psychometric scales; transgender; transphobia.

References

    1. Abell N., Springer D. W., Kamata A. (2009). Developing and Validating Rapid Assessment Instruments. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
    1. Adams K. A., Nagoshi C. T., Filip-Crawford G., Terrell H. K., Nagoshi J. L. (2016). Components of gender-nonconformity prejudice. Int. J. Trans. 17, 185–198. 10.1080/15532739.2016.1200509
    1. Berinsky A. J., Huber G. A., Lenz G. S. (2012). Evaluating online labor markets for experimental research: 's Mechanical Turk. Pol. Anal. 20, 351–368. 10.1093/pan/mpr057
    1. Billard T. J. (2016). Writing in the margins: mainstream news media representations of transgenderism. Int. J. Commun. 10, 4193–4218.
    1. Billard T. J. (2018). The crisis in content validity among existing measures of transphobia. Arch. Sex. Behav. [Epub ahead of print]. 10.1007/s10508-018-1191-x
    1. Braun V., Clarke V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual. Res. Psychol. 3, 77–101. 10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
    1. Carrera-Fernández M., Lameiras-Fernández M., Rodríguez-Castro Y., Vallejo-Medina P. (2014). Spanish adolescents' attitudes toward transpeople: proposal and validation of a short form of the Genderism and Transphobia Scale. J. Sex Res. 51, 654–666. 10.1080/00224499.2013.773577
    1. Case K. A., Stewart B. (2013). Intervention effectiveness in reducing prejudice against transsexuals. J. LGBT Youth 10, 140–158. 10.1080/19361653.2012.718549
    1. Crowne D. P., Marlowe D. (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology. J. Consult. Psychol. 24, 349–354. 10.1037/h0047358
    1. Fischer D. G., Fick C. (1993). Measuring social desirability: short forms of the Marlowe-Crowne social desirability scale. Educ. Psychol. Meas. 53, 417–424. 10.1177/0013164493053002011
    1. Flores A. R. (2015). Attitudes toward transgender rights: perceived knowledge and secondary interpersonal contact. Pol. Groups Ident. 3, 398–416. 10.1080/21565503.2015.1050414
    1. Flores A. R., Haider-Markel D. P., Lewis D. C., Miller P. R., Tadlock B. L., Taylor J. K. (2017). Challenged expectations: mere exposure effects on attitudes about transgender people and rights. Pol. Psychol. 39, 197–216. 10.1111/pops.12402
    1. Herek G. M., McLemore K. A. (2011). Attitudes toward lesbians and gay men scale, in Handbook of Sexuality-Related Measures, 3rd Edn., eds Fisher T. D., Davis C. M., Yarber W. L., Davis S. L. (New York, NY: Routledge; ), 415–417.
    1. Hill D. B. (2002). Genderism, transphobia, and gender bashing: a framework for interpreting anti-transgender violence, in Understanding and Dealing with Violence: A Multicultural Approach, eds Wallace B., Carter R. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; ), 113–136.
    1. Hill D. B., Willoughby B. L. B. (2005). The development and validation of the Genderism and Transphobia Scale. Sex Roles 53, 531–544. 10.1007/s11199-005-7140-x
    1. Kanamori Y., Cornelius-White J. H. D., Pegors T. K., Daniel T., Hulgus J. (2017). Development and validation of the transgender attitudes and beliefs scale. Arch. Sex. Behav. 46, 1503–1515. 10.1007/s10508-016-0840-1
    1. Kerr P. S., Holden R. R. (1996). Development of the Gender Role Beliefs Scale (GRBS). J. Soc. Behav. Pers. 11, 3–16.
    1. Krysan M. (2000). Prejudice, politics, and public opinion: understanding the sources of racial policy attitudes. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 26, 135–168. 10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.135
    1. Miller P. R., Flores A. R., Haider-Markel D. P., Lewis D. C., Tadlock B. L., Taylor J. K. (2017). Transgender politics as body politics: effects of disgust sensitivity and authoritarianism on transgender rights attitudes. Pol. Groups Ident. 5, 4–24. 10.1080/21565503.2016.1260482
    1. Morrison M. A., Bishop C. J., Gazzola S. B., McCutcheon J. M., Parker K., Morrison T. G. (2017). Systematic review of the psychometric properties of Transphobia Scales. Int. J. Trans. 18, 395–410. 10.1080/15532739.2017.1332535
    1. Nagoshi J. L., Adams K. A., Terrell H. K., Hill E. D., Brzuzy S., Nagoshi C. T. (2008). Gender differences in correlates of homophobia and transphobia. Sex Roles 59, 521–531. 10.1007/s11199-008-9458-7
    1. Norton A. T., Herek G. M. (2013). Heterosexuals' attitudes toward transgender people: findings from a national probability sample of U.S. adults. Sex Roles 68, 738–753. 10.1007/s11199-011-0110-6
    1. Peer E., Brandimarte L., Samat S., Acquisti A. (2017). Beyond the Turk: alternative platforms for crowdsourcing behavioral research. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 70, 153–163. 10.1016/j.jesp.2017.01.006
    1. Peters G.-J. Y. (2014). The alpha and the omega of scale reliability and validity: Why and how to abandon Cronbach's alpha and the route towards more comprehensive assessment of scale quality. Eur. Health Psychol. 16, 56–69.
    1. Rhemtulla M., Brosseau-Liard P. É., Savalei V. (2012). When can categorical variables be treated as continuous? A comparison of robust continuous and categorical SEM estimation methods under suboptimal conditions. Psychol. Methods 17, 354–373. 10.1037/a0029315
    1. Riggs D. W., Bartholomaeus C. (2015). The role of school counsellors and psychologists in supporting transgender people. Aust. Edu. Dev. Psychol. 32, 158–170. 10.1017/edp.2015.19
    1. Riggs D. W., Bartholomaeus C. (2016). Australian mental health nurses and transgender clients: attitudes and knowledge. J. Res. Nurs. 21, 212–222. 10.1177/1744987115624483
    1. Strahan R., Gerbasi K. C. (1972). Short, homogeneous versions of the Marlow-Crowne Social Desirability Scale. J. Clin. Psychol. 28, 191–193.
    1. Tebbe E. N., Moradi B. (2012). Anti-transgender prejudice: a structural equation model of associated constructs. J. Couns. Psychol. 59, 251–261. 10.1037/a0026990
    1. Tebbe E. T., Moradi B., Ege E. (2014). Revised and abbreviated forms of the Genderism and Transphobia Scale: tools for assessing anti-trans prejudice. J. Couns. Psychol. 61, 581–592. 10.1037/cou0000043
    1. Tee N., Hegarty P. (2006). Predicting opposition to the civil rights of trans persons in the United Kingdom. J. Commun. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 16, 70–80. 10.1002/casp.851
    1. Thomas D. M., Amburgey J., Ellis L. (2016). Anti-transgender prejudice mediates the association of just world beliefs and victim blame attribution. Int. J. Trans. 17, 176–184. 10.1080/15532739.2016.1232627
    1. Walch S. E., Ngamake S. T., Francisco J., Stitt R. L., Shingler K. A. (2012). The Attitudes Toward Transgendered Individuals Scale: psychometric properties. Arch. Sex. Behav. 41, 1283–1291. 10.1007/s10508-012-9995-6
    1. Weiner B. A., Zinner L. (2015). Attitudes toward straight, gay male, and transsexual parenting. J. Homosex. 62, 327–339. 10.1080/00918369.2014.972800
    1. Winter S., Chalungsooth P., Teh Y. K., Rojanalert N., Maneerat K., Wong Y. W., et al. (2009). Transpeople, transprejudice and pathologization: a seven-country factor analytic study. Int. J. Sex. Health 21, 96–118. 10.1080/19317610902922537
    1. Worthen M. G. F. (2013). An argument for separate analyses of attitudes toward lesbian, gay, bisexual men, bisexual women, MtF and FtM transgender individuals. Sex Roles 68, 703–723. 10.1007/s11199-012-0155-1
    1. Worthen M. G. F., Lingiardi V., Caristo C. (2017). The roles of politics, feminism, and religion in attitudes toward LGBT individuals: a cross-cultural study of college students in the USA, Italy, and Spain. Sex. Res. Soc. Policy 14, 241–258. 10.1007/s13178-016-0244-y

Source: PubMed

Sponsor e collaboratori

Condizioni mediche

Interventi farmacologici

3
Sottoscrivi