The Role of the Gut Microbiome in Psychiatric Disorders

Ioana-Maria Andrioaie, Alexandru Duhaniuc, Eduard Vasile Nastase, Luminița Smaranda Iancu, Cătălina Luncă, Felicia Trofin, Dana-Teodora Anton-Păduraru, Olivia-Simona Dorneanu, Ioana-Maria Andrioaie, Alexandru Duhaniuc, Eduard Vasile Nastase, Luminița Smaranda Iancu, Cătălina Luncă, Felicia Trofin, Dana-Teodora Anton-Păduraru, Olivia-Simona Dorneanu

Abstract

The role of the gut microbiome in mental health has been of great interest in the past years, with several breakthroughs happening in the last decade. Its implications in several psychiatric disorders, namely anxiety, depression, autism and schizophrenia, are highlighted. In this review were included relevant studies on rodents, as well as human studies. There seems to be a connection between the gut microbiome and these pathologies, the link being emphasized both in rodents and humans. The results obtained in murine models align with the results acquired from patients; however, fewer studies regarding anxiety were conducted on humans. The process of sequencing and analyzing the microbiome has been conducted in humans for several other pathologies mentioned above. Additionally, the possible beneficial role of probiotics and postbiotics administered as an aid to the psychiatric medication was analyzed.

Keywords: anxiety; autism; depression; gut microbiome; microbiota–gut–brain axis; probiotics; psychiatric disorders; schizophrenia.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
The selection process of the articles.

References

    1. Qin J., Li R., Raes J., Arumugam M., Burgdorf K.S., Manichanh C., Nielsen T., Pons N., Levenez F., Yamada T., et al. A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature. 2010;464:59–65. doi: 10.1038/nature08821.
    1. Human Microbiome Project Consortium Structure, function and diversity of the healthy human microbiome. Nature. 2012;486:207–214. doi: 10.1038/nature11234.
    1. Walker A.W., Lawley T.D. Therapeutic modulation of intestinal dysbiosis. Pharmacol. Res. 2013;69:75–86. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2012.09.008.
    1. Balamurugan R., Rajendiran E., George S., Samuel G.V., Ramakrishna B.S. Real-time polymerase chain reaction quantification of specific butyrate-producing bacteria, Desulfovibrio and Enterococcus faecalis in the feces of patients with colorectal cancer. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2008;23:1298–1303. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1746.2008.05490.x.
    1. Marchesi J.R., Dutilh B.E., Hall N., Peters W.H., Roelofs R., Boleij A., Tjalsma H. Towards the human colorectal cancer microbiome. PLoS ONE. 2011;6:e20447. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020447.
    1. Swidsinski A., Weber J., Loening-Baucke V., Hale L.P., Lochs H. Spatial organization and composition of the mucosal flora in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2005;43:3380–3389. doi: 10.1128/JCM.43.7.3380-3389.2005.
    1. Frank D.N., St Amand A.L., Feldman R.A., Boedeker E.C., Harpaz N., Pace N.R. Molecular-phylogenetic characterization of microbial community imbalances in human inflammatory bowel diseases. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2007;104:13780–13785. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0706625104.
    1. Littman D.R., Pamer E.G. Role of the commensal microbiota in normal and pathogenic host immune responses. Cell Host Microbe. 2011;10:311–323. doi: 10.1016/j.chom.2011.10.004.
    1. Mayer E.A., Knight R., Mazmanian S.K., Cryan J.F., Tillisch K. Gut microbes and the brain: Paradigm shift in neuroscience. J. Neurosci. 2014;34:15490–15496. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3299-14.2014.
    1. Cryan J.F., O’Mahony S.M. The microbiome-gut-brain axis: From bowel to behavior. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 2011;23:187–192. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2982.2010.01664.x.
    1. Cryan J.F., Dinan T.G. Mind-altering microorganisms: The impact of the gut microbiota on brain and behaviour. Nat. Neurosci. 2012;13:701–712. doi: 10.1038/nrn3346.
    1. Clarke G., Grenham S., Scully P., Fitzgerald P., Moloney R.D., Shanahan F., Dinan T.G., Cryan J.F. The microbiome-gut-brain axis during early life regulates the hippocampal serotonergic system in a sex-dependent manner. Mol. Psychiatry. 2013;18:666–673. doi: 10.1038/mp.2012.77.
    1. Luczynski P., McVey Neufeld K.A., Oriach C.S., Clarke G., Dinan T.G., Cryan J.F. Growing up in a Bubble: Using Germ-Free Animals to Assess the Influence of the Gut Microbiota on Brain and Behavior. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2016;19:pyw020. doi: 10.1093/ijnp/pyw020.
    1. Desbonnet L., Clarke G., Traplin A., O’Sullivan O., Crispie F., Moloney R.D., Cotter P.D., Dinan T.G., Cryan J.F. Gut microbiota depletion from early adolescence in mice: Implications for brain and behaviour. Brain Behav. Immun. 2015;48:165–173. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2015.04.004.
    1. Erny D., Hrabě de Angelis A.L., Jaitin D., Wieghofer P., Staszewski O., David E., Keren-Shaul H., Mahlakoiv T., Jakobshagen K., Buch T., et al. Host microbiota constantly control maturation and function of microglia in the CNS. Nat. Neurosci. 2015;18:965–977. doi: 10.1038/nn.4030.
    1. Hoban A.E., Stilling R.M., Ryan F.J., Shanahan F., Dinan T.G., Claesson M.J., Clarke G., Cryan J.F. Regulation of prefrontal cortex myelination by the microbiota. Transl. Psychiatry. 2016;6:e774. doi: 10.1038/tp.2016.42.
    1. Sudo N., Chida Y., Aiba Y., Sonoda J., Oyama N., Yu X.N., Kubo C., Koga Y. Postnatal microbial colonization programs the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system for stress response in mice. Pt 1J. Physiol. 2004;558:263–275. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2004.063388.
    1. Neufeld K.M., Kang N., Bienenstock J., Foster J.A. Reduced anxiety-like behavior and central neurochemical change in germ-free mice. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 2011;23:255-e119. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2982.2010.01620.x.
    1. Bercik P., Denou E., Collins J., Jackson W., Lu J., Jury J., Deng Y., Blennerhassett P., Macri J., McCoy K.D., et al. The intestinal microbiota affect central levels of brain-derived neurotropic factor and behavior in mice. Gastroenterology. 2011;141:599–609.e6093. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2011.04.052.
    1. Craske M.G., Stein M.B., Eley T.C., Milad M.R., Holmes A., Rapee R.M., Wittchen H.U. Correction: Anxiety disorders. Nat. Rev. 2017;3:17100. doi: 10.1038/nrdp.2017.100.
    1. Olthuis J.V., Watt M.C., Bailey K., Hayden J.A., Stewart S.H. Therapist-supported Internet cognitive behavioural therapy for anxiety disorders in adults. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2016;3:CD011565. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD011565.pub2.
    1. Diaz Heijtz R., Wang S., Anuar F., Qian Y., Björkholm B., Samuelsson A., Hibberd M.L., Forssberg H., Pettersson S. Normal gut microbiota modulates brain development and behavior. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2011;108:3047–3052. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1010529108.
    1. Neufeld K.A., Kang N., Bienenstock J., Foster J.A. Effects of intestinal microbiota on anxiety-like behavior. Commun. Integr. Biol. 2011;4:492–494. doi: 10.4161/cib.15702.
    1. Seibenhener M.L., Wooten M.C. Use of the Open Field Maze to measure locomotor and anxiety-like behavior in mice. J. Vis. Exp. 2015;96:e52434. doi: 10.3791/52434.
    1. Komada M., Takao K., Miyakawa T. Elevated plus maze for mice. J. Vis. Exp. 2008;22:1088. doi: 10.3791/1088.
    1. Morris G., Berk M., Carvalho A., Caso J.R., Sanz Y., Walder K., Maes M. The Role of the Microbial Metabolites Including Tryptophan Catabolites and Short Chain Fatty Acids in the Pathophysiology of Immune-Inflammatory and Neuroimmune Disease. Mol. Neurobiol. 2017;54:4432–4451. doi: 10.1007/s12035-016-0004-2.
    1. Jin X., Zhang Y., Celniker S.E., Xia Y., Mao J.H., Snijders A.M., Chang H. Gut microbiome partially mediates and coordinates the effects of genetics on anxiety-like behavior in Collaborative Cross mice. Sci. Rep. 2021;11:270. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-79538-x.
    1. Kang S.S., Jeraldo P.R., Kurti A., Miller M.E., Cook M.D., Whitlock K., Goldenfeld N., Woods J.A., White B.A., Chia N., et al. Diet and exercise orthogonally alter the gut microbiome and reveal independent associations with anxiety and cognition. Mol. Neurodegener. 2014;9:36. doi: 10.1186/1750-1326-9-36.
    1. Bangsgaard Bendtsen K.M., Krych L., Sørensen D.B., Pang W., Nielsen D.S., Josefsen K., Hansen L.H., Sørensen S.J., Hansen A.K. Gut microbiota composition is correlated to grid floor induced stress and behavior in the BALB/c mouse. PLoS ONE. 2012;7:e46231. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0046231.
    1. Lyte M., Li W., Opitz N., Gaykema R.P., Goehler L.E. Induction of anxiety-like behavior in mice during the initial stages of infection with the agent of murine colonic hyperplasia Citrobacter rodentium. Physiol. Behav. 2006;89:350–357. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.06.019.
    1. Collins S.M., Kassam Z., Bercik P. The adoptive transfer of behavioral phenotype via the intestinal microbiota: Experimental evidence and clinical implications. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 2013;16:240–245. doi: 10.1016/j.mib.2013.06.004.
    1. Jiang H.Y., Zhang X., Yu Z.H., Zhang Z., Deng M., Zhao J.H., Ruan B. Altered gut microbiota profile in patients with generalized anxiety disorder. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2018;104:130–136. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2018.07.007.
    1. Mitchell A.J., Chan M., Bhatti H., Halton M., Grassi L., Johansen C., Meader N. Prevalence of depression, anxiety, and adjustment disorder in oncological, haematological, and palliative-care settings: A meta-analysis of 94 interview-based studies. Lancet Oncol. 2011;12:160–174. doi: 10.1016/S1470-2045(11)70002-X.
    1. Casey D.A. Depression in Older Adults: A Treatable Medical Condition. Prim. Care. 2017;44:499–510. doi: 10.1016/j.pop.2017.04.007.
    1. Bastiaanssen T., Cussotto S., Claesson M.J., Clarke G., Dinan T.G., Cryan J.F. Gutted! Unraveling the Role of the Microbiome in Major Depressive Disorder. Harv. Rev. Psychiatry. 2020;28:26–39. doi: 10.1097/HRP.0000000000000243.
    1. Sánchez-Villegas A., Henríquez P., Bes-Rastrollo M., Doreste J. Mediterranean diet and depression. Public Health Nutr. 2006;9:1104–1109. doi: 10.1017/S1368980007668578.
    1. Jacka F.N., O’Neil A., Opie R., Itsiopoulos C., Cotton S., Mohebbi M., Castle D., Dash S., Mihalopoulos C., Chatterton M.L., et al. A randomised controlled trial of dietary improvement for adults with major depression (the ‘SMILES’ trial) BMC Med. 2017;15:23. doi: 10.1186/s12916-017-0791-y.
    1. Garcia-Mantrana I., Selma-Royo M., Alcantara C., Collado M.C. Shifts on Gut Microbiota Associated to Mediterranean Diet Adherence and Specific Dietary Intakes on General Adult Population. Front. Microbiol. 2018;9:890. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00890.
    1. Zheng P., Zeng B., Zhou C., Liu M., Fang Z., Xu X., Zeng L., Chen J., Fan S., Du X., et al. Gut microbiome remodeling induces depressive-like behaviors through a pathway mediated by the host’s metabolism. Mol. Psychiatry. 2016;21:786–796. doi: 10.1038/mp.2016.44.
    1. Kelly J.R., Borre Y., O’ Brien C., Patterson E., El Aidy S., Deane J., Kennedy P.J., Beers S., Scott K., Moloney G., et al. Transferring the blues: Depression-associated gut microbiota induces neurobehavioural changes in the rat. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2016;82:109–118. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.07.019.
    1. Settanni C.R., Ianiro G., Bibbò S., Cammarota G., Gasbarrini. A. Gut microbiota alteration and modulation in psychiatric disorders: Current evidence on fecal microbiota transplantation. Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry. 2021;109:110258. doi: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2021.110258.
    1. Valles-Colomer M., Falony G., Darzi Y., Tigchelaar E.F., Wang J., Tito R.Y., Schiweck C., Kurilshikov A., Joossens M., Wijmenga C., et al. The neuroactive potential of the human gut microbiota in quality of life and depression. Nat. Microbiol. 2019;4:623–632. doi: 10.1038/s41564-018-0337-x.
    1. Jiang H., Ling Z., Zhang Y., Mao H., Ma Z., Yin Y., Wang W., Tang W., Tan Z., Shi J., et al. Altered fecal microbiota composition in patients with major depressive disorder. Brain Behav. Immun. 2015;48:186–194. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2015.03.016.
    1. Naseribafrouei A., Hestad K., Avershina E., Sekelja M., Linløkken A., Wilson R., Rudi K. Correlation between the human fecal microbiota and depression. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 2014;26:1155–1162. doi: 10.1111/nmo.12378.
    1. Soltysova M., Tomova A., Ostatnikova D. Gut Microbiota Profiles in Children and Adolescents with Psychiatric Disorders. Microorganisms. 2022;10:2009. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms10102009.
    1. Finegold S.M., Dowd S.E., Gontcharova V., Liu C., Henley K.E., Wolcott R.D., Youn E., Summanen P.H., Granpeesheh D., Dixon D., et al. Pyrosequencing study of fecal microflora of autistic and control children. Anaerobe. 2010;16:444–453. doi: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2010.06.008.
    1. MacFabe D.F., Cain D.P., Rodriguez-Capote K., Franklin A.E., Hoffman J.E., Boon F., Taylor A.R., Kavaliers M., Ossenkopp K.P. Neurobiological effects of intraventricular propionic acid in rats: Possible role of short chain fatty acids on the pathogenesis and characteristics of autism spectrum disorders. Behav. Brain Res. 2007;176:149–169. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2006.07.025.
    1. Vuong H.E., Hsiao E.Y. Emerging Roles for the Gut Microbiome in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Biol. Psychiatry. 2017;81:411–423. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.08.024.
    1. Saurman V., Margolis K.G., Luna R.A. Autism Spectrum Disorder as a Brain-Gut-Microbiome Axis Disorder. Dig. Dis. Sci. 2020;65:818–828. doi: 10.1007/s10620-020-06133-5.
    1. Adams D.J., Susi A., Erdie-Lalena C.R., Gorman G., Hisle-Gorman E., Rajnik M., Elrod M., Nylund C.M. Otitis Media and Related Complications Among Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2016;46:1636–1642. doi: 10.1007/s10803-015-2689-x.
    1. Atladóttir H.O., Thorsen P., Schendel D.E., Østergaard L., Lemcke S., Parner E.T. Association of hospitalization for infection in childhood with diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders: A Danish cohort study. Arch. Pediatrics Adolesc. Med. 2010;164:470–477. doi: 10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.9.
    1. Wimberley T., Agerbo E., Pedersen C.B., Dalsgaard S., Horsdal H.T., Mortensen P.B., Thompson W.K., Köhler-Forsberg O., Yolken R.H. Otitis media, antibiotics, and risk of autism spectrum disorder. Autism Res. 2018;11:1432–1440. doi: 10.1002/aur.2015.
    1. Finegold S.M., Molitoris D., Song Y., Liu C., Vaisanen M.L., Bolte E., McTeague M., Sandler R., Wexler H., Marlowe E.M., et al. Gastrointestinal microflora studies in late-onset autism. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2002;35:S6–S16. doi: 10.1086/341914.
    1. Sandler R.H., Finegold S.M., Bolte E.R., Buchanan C.P., Maxwell A.P., Väisänen M.L., Nelson M.N., Wexler H.M. Short-term benefit from oral vancomycin treatment of regressive-onset autism. J. Child Neurol. 2000;15:429–435. doi: 10.1177/088307380001500701.
    1. Atladóttir H.Ó., Henriksen T.B., Schendel D.E., Parner E.T. Autism after infection, febrile episodes, and antibiotic use during pregnancy: An exploratory study. Pediatrics. 2012;130:e1447–e1454. doi: 10.1542/peds.2012-1107.
    1. Dan Z., Mao X., Liu Q., Guo M., Zhuang Y., Liu Z., Chen K., Chen J., Xu R., Tang J., et al. Altered gut microbial profile is associated with abnormal metabolism activity of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Gut Microbes. 2020;11:1246–1267. doi: 10.1080/19490976.2020.1747329.
    1. Zhai Q., Cen S., Jiang J., Zhao J., Zhang H., Chen W. Disturbance of trace element and gut microbiota profiles as indicators of autism spectrum disorder: A pilot study of Chinese children. Environ. Res. 2019;171:501–509. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2019.01.060.
    1. Zou R., Xu F., Wang Y., Duan M., Guo M., Zhang Q., Zhao H., Zheng H. Changes in the Gut Microbiota of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Autism Res. Off. J. Int. Soc. Autism Res. 2020;13:1614–1625. doi: 10.1002/aur.2358.
    1. Ahmed S.A., Elhefnawy A.M., Azouz H.G., Roshdy Y.S., Ashry M.H., Ibrahim A.E., Meheissen M.A. Study of the gut Microbiome Profile in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Single Tertiary Hospital Experience. J. Mol. Neurosci. 2020;70:887–896. doi: 10.1007/s12031-020-01500-3.
    1. Ding X., Xu Y., Zhang X., Zhang L., Duan G., Song C., Li Z., Yang Y., Wang Y., Wang X., et al. Gut microbiota changes in patients with autism spectrum disorders. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2020;129:149–159. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.06.032.
    1. Kang D.W., Park J.G., Ilhan Z.E., Wallstrom G., Labaer J., Adams J.B., Krajmalnik-Brown R. Reduced incidence of Prevotella and other fermenters in intestinal microflora of autistic children. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e68322. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0068322.
    1. Wang L., Christophersen C.T., Sorich M.J., Gerber J.P., Angley M.T., Conlon M.A. Increased abundance of Sutterella spp. and Ruminococcus torques in feces of children with autism spectrum disorder. Mol. Autism. 2013;4:42. doi: 10.1186/2040-2392-4-42.
    1. Zhu F., Ju Y., Wang W., Wang Q., Guo R., Ma Q., Sun Q., Fan Y., Xie Y., Yang Z., et al. Metagenome-wide association of gut microbiome features for schizophrenia. Nat. Commun. 2020;11:1612. doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-15457-9.
    1. Zheng P., Zeng B., Liu M., Chen J., Pan J., Han Y., Liu Y., Cheng K., Zhou C., Wang H., et al. The gut microbiome from patients with schizophrenia modulates the glutamate-glutamine-GABA cycle and schizophrenia-relevant behaviors in mice. Sci. Adv. 2019;5:eaau8317. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aau8317.
    1. Babulas V., Factor-Litvak P., Goetz R., Schaefer C.A., Brown A.S. Prenatal exposure to maternal genital and reproductive infections and adult schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2006;163:927–929. doi: 10.1176/ajp.2006.163.5.927.
    1. Golofast B., Vales K. The connection between microbiome and schizophrenia. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2020;108:712–731. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.12.011.
    1. Sarkar A., Lehto S.M., Harty S., Dinan T.G., Cryan J.F., Burnet P. Psychobiotics and the Manipulation of Bacteria-Gut-Brain Signals. Trends Neurosci. 2016;39:763–781. doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2016.09.002.
    1. McKean J., Naug H., Nikbakht E., Amiet B., Colson N. Probiotics and Subclinical Psychological Symptoms in Healthy Participants: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 2017;23:249–258. doi: 10.1089/acm.2016.0023.
    1. Liang S., Wu X., Jin F. Gut-Brain Psychology: Rethinking Psychology from the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis. Front. Integr. Neurosci. 2018;12:33. doi: 10.3389/fnint.2018.00033.
    1. Smith C.J., Emge J.R., Berzins K., Lung L., Khamishon R., Shah P., Rodrigues D.M., Sousa A.J., Reardon C., Sherman P.M., et al. Probiotics normalize the gut-brain-microbiota axis in immunodeficient mice. Am. J. Physiol.-Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 2014;307:G793–G802. doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.00238.2014.
    1. Akkasheh G., Kashani-Poor Z., Tajabadi-Ebrahimi M., Jafari P., Akbari H., Taghizadeh M., Memarzadeh M.R., Asemi Z., Esmaillzadeh A. Clinical and metabolic response to probiotic administration in patients with major depressive disorder: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Nutrition. 2016;32:315–320. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2015.09.003.
    1. Kazemi A., Noorbala A.A., Azam K., Eskandari M.H., Djafarian K. Effect of probiotic and prebiotic vs placebo on psychological outcomes in patients with major depressive disorder: A randomized clinical trial. Clin. Nutr. 2019;38:522–528. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2018.04.010.
    1. Majeed M., Nagabhushanam K., Arumugam S., Majeed S., Ali F. Bacillus coagulans MTCC 5856 for the management of major depression with irritable bowel syndrome: A randomised, double-blind, placebo controlled, multi-centre, pilot clinical study. Food Nutr. Res. 2018:62. doi: 10.29219/fnr.v62.1218.
    1. Eskandarzadeh S., Effatpanah M., Khosravi-Darani K., Askari R., Hosseini A.F., Reisian M., Jazayeri S. Efficacy of a multispecies probiotic as adjunctive therapy in generalized anxiety disorder: A double blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Nutr. Neurosci. 2021;24:102–108. doi: 10.1080/1028415X.2019.1598669.
    1. Dickerson F.B., Stallings C., Origoni A., Katsafanas E., Savage C.L., Schweinfurth L.A., Goga J., Khushalani S., Yolken R.H. Effect of probiotic supplementation on schizophrenia symptoms and association with gastrointestinal functioning: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Prim. Care Companion CNS Disord. 2014;16:PCC.13m01579. doi: 10.4088/PCC.13m01579.
    1. Tomasik J., Yolken R.H., Bahn S., Dickerson F.B. Immunomodulatory Effects of Probiotic Supplementation in Schizophrenia Patients: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Biomark. Insights. 2015;10:47–54. doi: 10.4137/BMI.S22007.
    1. Severance E.G., Gressitt K.L., Stallings C.R., Katsafanas E., Schweinfurth L.A., Savage C., Adamos M.B., Sweeney K.M., Origoni A.E., Khushalani S., et al. Probiotic normalization of Candida albicans in schizophrenia: A randomized, placebo-controlled, longitudinal pilot study. Brain Behav. Immun. 2017;62:41–45. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2016.11.019.
    1. Durany N., Michel T., Zöchling R., Boissl K.W., Cruz-Sánchez F.F., Riederer P., Thome J. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin 3 in schizophrenic psychoses. Schizophr. Res. 2001;52:79–86. doi: 10.1016/S0920-9964(00)00084-0.
    1. Parracho H.M., Gibson G.R., Knott F., Bpssher D. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover-designed probiotic feeding study in children diagnosed with autistic spectrum disorders. Int. J. Probiotics Prebiotics. 2010;5:69.
    1. Sanctuary M.R., Kain J.N., Chen S.Y., Kalanetra K., Lemay D.G., Rose D.R., Yang H.T., Tancredi D.J., German J.B., Slupsky C.M., et al. Pilot study of probiotic/colostrum supplementation on gut function in children with autism and gastrointestinal symptoms. PLoS ONE. 2019;14:e0210064. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0210064.
    1. Salminen S., Collado M.C., Endo A., Hill C., Lebeer S., Quigley E.M.M., Sanders M.E., Shamir R., Swann J.R., Szajewska H., et al. The International Scientific Association of Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) consensus statement on the definition and scope of postbiotics. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2021;18:649–667. doi: 10.1038/s41575-021-00440-6.
    1. Maehata H., Kobayashi Y., Mitsuyama E., Kawase T., Kuhara T., Xiao J.Z., Tsukahara T., Toyoda A. Heat-killed Lactobacillus helveticus strain MCC1848 confers resilience to anxiety or depression-like symptoms caused by subchronic social defeat stress in mice. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2019;83:1239–1247. doi: 10.1080/09168451.2019.1591263.
    1. Warda A.K., Rea K., Fitzgerald P., Hueston C., Gonzalez-Tortuero E., Dinan T.G., Hill C. Heat-killed lactobacilli alter both microbiota composition and behaviour. Behav. Brain Res. 2019;362:213–223. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.12.047.
    1. Nishida K., Sawada D., Kuwano Y., Tanaka H., Rokutan K. Health Benefits of Lactobacillus gasseri CP2305 Tablets in Young Adults Exposed to Chronic Stress: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study. Nutrients. 2019;11:1859. doi: 10.3390/nu11081859.

Source: PubMed

Sponsor e collaboratori

Condizioni mediche

Interventi farmacologici

3
Sottoscrivi