Effects of RF-EMF on the Human Resting-State EEG-the Inconsistencies in the Consistency. Part 1: Non-Exposure-Related Limitations of Comparability Between Studies

Heidi Danker-Hopfe, Torsten Eggert, Hans Dorn, Cornelia Sauter, Heidi Danker-Hopfe, Torsten Eggert, Hans Dorn, Cornelia Sauter

Abstract

The results of studies on possible effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) on human waking electroencephalography (EEG) have been quite heterogeneous. In the majority of studies, changes in the alpha-frequency range in subjects who were exposed to different signals of mobile phone-related EMF sources were observed, whereas other studies did not report any effects. In this review, possible reasons for these inconsistencies are presented and recommendations for future waking EEG studies are made. The physiological basis of underlying brain activity, and the technical requirements and framework conditions for conducting and analyzing the human resting-state EEG are discussed. Peer-reviewed articles on possible effects of EMF on waking EEG were evaluated with regard to non-exposure-related confounding factors. Recommendations derived from international guidelines on the analysis and reporting of findings are proposed to achieve comparability in future studies. In total, 22 peer-reviewed studies on possible RF-EMF effects on human resting-state EEG were analyzed. EEG power in the alpha frequency range was reported to be increased in 10, decreased in four, and not affected in eight studies. All reviewed studies differ in several ways in terms of the methodologies applied, which might contribute to different results and conclusions about the impact of EMF on human resting-state EEG. A discussion of various study protocols and different outcome parameters prevents a scientifically sound statement on the impact of RF-EMF on human brain activity in resting-state EEG. Further studies which apply comparable, standardized study protocols are recommended. Bioelectromagnetics. 2019;40:291-318. © 2019 The Authors. Bioelectromagnetics Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Keywords: alpha band power; brain activity; electroencephalography; mobile phone; radiofrequency.

© 2019 The Authors. Bioelectromagnetics Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Occipital dominance of alpha in resting‐state electroencephalography (EEG) with eyes closed. Figure shows a 30‐s epoch with six EEG signals (F4, F4, C4, C3, O1, and O2 referenced to the averaged mastoids), a bipolar vertical, horizontal electrooculogram (EOG), and an electrocardiogram (ECG).
Figure 2
Figure 2
Electrode positions and topographical assignment according to Jasper [1958].
Figure 3
Figure 3
Study selection flow chart. EEG = electroencephalography.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Graphical summary of the major findings observed in the 22 studies under consideration. (a) Number of studies by radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF‐EMF) effect occurrence (yes/no) and direction of RF‐EMF effect. (b) Number of studies reporting an RF‐EMF effect by frequency band and direction of RF‐EMF effect in relation to the number of studies that investigated the respective frequency band. Studies: 1. Röschke and Mann [1997], 2. Hietanen et al. [2000], 3. Croft et al. [2002], 4. D'Costa et al. [2003], 5. Curcio et al. [2005], 6. Perentos et al. [2007], 7. Regel et al. [2007], 8. Croft et al. [2008], 9. Hinrikus et al. [2008a], 10. Hinrikus et al. [2008b], 11. Kleinlogel et al. [2008], 12. Croft et al. [2010], 13. Hinrikus et al. [2011], 14. Loughran et al. [2013], 15. Perentos et al. [2013], 16. Suhhova et al. [2013], 17. Trunk et al. [2013], 18. Ghosn et al. [2015], 19. Curcio et al. [2015], 20. Roggeveen et al. [2015], 21. Zentai et al. [2015], 22. Yang et al. [2017].
Figure 5
Figure 5
Information on age of the samples in the 22 reviewed studies. Information on age refers either to age ranges (grey‐shaded bars) or to mean values ± a measure of dispersion (black‐framed boxes). Please note that in some cases it was not further specified whether the standard deviation (SD) or standard error (SE) was reported as measure of dispersion. Dotted lines are used for a clear assignment of study subgroups. AG = age group; SG = subgroup; (a) mean ± SD, (b) mean ± SE, (c) not clear whether an SD or SE is reported, (d) weighted mean and standard deviation were computed based on separate information for men and women, (e) no age information was reported for the subgroups.
Figure 6
Figure 6
Size and sex distribution of the samples in the 22 reviewed studies. Dark grey bars display the number of males and light grey bars display the number of females. a)Maximum number of subjects considered for analyses was n = 109. AG = age group; SG = subgroup.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Resting‐state electroencephalography (EEG) with eyes closed (left) and eyes open (right). Figure shows a 30‐s epoch with 19 EEG signals referenced to the averaged mastoids, a bipolar vertical and horizontal electrooculogram (EOG), and an electrocardiogram (ECG). The blockade of alpha in the EEG by opening of the eyes is obvious.
Figure 8
Figure 8
Number and topographical distribution of EEG electrodes (including EEG analysis references) used in the 22 studies under consideration. Figure shows all 19 EEG electrode positions according to the 10–20‐system [Jasper, 1958] plus electrode positions Fpz and Oz (black dotted‐framed boxes) that do not belong to the standard electrode locations of the 10–20‐system. More than these 21 electrodes were considered in three of the 22 studies. Some studies did not clearly provide information on the reference used for analysis. This lack of information is either indicated by a “?” (not clear whether the specification refers to the recording or to the analysis reference) or by an “nI” (no information is provided about the analysis reference). C = Central; Com. av. = common average; CP = Centroparietal; EEG = electroencephalography; F = Frontal; P = Parietal; PF = Prefrontal; PO = Parieto‐Occipital; Post = Posterior; O = Occipital; L = Left; M = Midline; R = Right; T = Temporal. 1)Not further specified electrodes were grouped into front ipsilateral, front contralateral, posterior ipsilateral, and posterior contralateral scalp regions.
Figure 9
Figure 9
Examples of the impact of different references on the resting‐state electroencephalography (EEG). In the averaged mastoids montage, for most locations comparably high alpha amplitudes occur, with the lowest amplitudes for the temporal and frontal regions. With the Cz (single electrode) reference, the central and frontal regions show lower alpha amplitudes (the Cz location itself is zero in this diagram, of course.) A common average reference (mean of all scalp locations) leads to a generally weaker alpha rhythm.
Figure 10
Figure 10
Frequency bands used in the 22 studies under consideration. Dark grey‐shaded bars indicate the frequency bands, while the light grey‐shaded bars indicate the whole frequency range if no clear frequency band breakdown was reported. For comparison, the reference frequency band classifications according to Chang et al. [2011] and Jobert et al. [2012] are displayed at the bottom of the figure. The dotted lines mark the alpha frequency range used in pharmaco‐electroencephalography (EEG) studies.

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