A Guide to COVID-19: a global pandemic caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2

Cassandra L Atzrodt, Insha Maknojia, Robert D P McCarthy, Tiara M Oldfield, Jonathan Po, Kenny T L Ta, Hannah E Stepp, Thomas P Clements, Cassandra L Atzrodt, Insha Maknojia, Robert D P McCarthy, Tiara M Oldfield, Jonathan Po, Kenny T L Ta, Hannah E Stepp, Thomas P Clements

Abstract

The emergence of the SARS-CoV-2 strain of the human coronavirus has thrown the world into the midst of a new pandemic. In the human body, the virus causes COVID-19, a disease characterized by shortness of breath, fever, and pneumonia, which can be fatal in vulnerable individuals. SARS-CoV-2 has characteristics of past human coronaviruses, with close genomic similarities to SARS-CoV, the virus that causes the disease SARS. Like these related coronaviruses, SARS-CoV-2 is transmitted through the inhalation of droplets and interaction with contaminated surfaces. Across the world, laboratories are developing candidate vaccines for the virus - with vaccine trials underway in the United States and the United Kingdom - and considering various drugs for possible treatments and prophylaxis. Here, we provide an overview of SARS-CoV-2 by analyzing its virology, epidemiology, and modes of transmission while examining the current progress of testing procedures and possible treatments through drugs and vaccines.

Keywords: ACE2; COVID-19; CRISPR; MERS; MERS-CoV; SARS; SARS-CoV; SARS-CoV-2; coronavirus; vaccine.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

© 2020 Federation of European Biochemical Societies.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Reported cases of COVID‐19 by country adapted from CDC. Red represents China, the SARS‐CoV‐2 origin. Orange represents countries reporting COVID‐19 cases. Green represents major countries reporting no cases of COVID‐19 and includes Lesotho, North Korea, and Turkmenistan. Figure reproduced from [155].
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Diagram of SARS‐CoV‐2 virus structure. The spike glycoprotein (red) is the protein that binds to the ACE2 receptor of host cells and mediates viral entry. Additionally, this protein is what gives the virus its crown‐like (Latin ‘corona’) appearance. The membrane proteins (yellow) and the envelope small membrane proteins (blue) are important structurally as well as mechanistically. The genomic RNA (white) comprises the genetic material that the virus uses to propagate itself once inside its host.
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Diagram of SARS‐CoV‐2 entry into host cell. The spike glycoprotein (red), which consists of two subunits, binds to the ACE2 receptor (green) of host cells to merge the viral and cellular membranes and insert the viral genomic RNA (white) into the host cell. This induces endocytosis and the merging of the viral and cellular membranes, causing the viral genomic RNA to be inserted into the host cell and thus allowing the virus to replicate. The binding of SARS‐CoV‐2 to the ACE2 receptor causes a downregulation of this receptor, disrupting its normal function in maintaining immune homeostasis and leading to pro‐inflammatory effects that can cause lung injury.
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
The top of the drawing represents the DNA encoding for the Cas 13 protein and the CRISPR array, which contains the targets for Cas13 cleavage and subsequent degradation. This array is transcribed into pre‐crRNA. The Cas13 protein turns this transcript into mature crRNAs, forming a crRNA‐Cas13 complex that in turns searches along existing RNA transcripts for matching sequences known as protospacers. Once this complementary protospacer is found, Cas13 undergoes a conformational change to enhance binding and activates the RNA cleavage activity of Cas13, which can then be used to degrade foreign viral RNA entering the cell as shown on the right side of the image. Adapted from [156].

References

    1. Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, Wang X, Zhou L, Tong Y, Ren R, Leung KSM, Lau EHY, Wong JY et al. (2020) Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus‐infected pneumonia. N Engl J Med 382, 1199–1207.
    1. Coronaviridae Study Group of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2020) The species severe acute respiratory syndrome‐related coronavirus: classifying 2019‐nCoV and naming it SARS‐CoV‐2. Nat Microbiol 5, 536–544.
    1. Zhou P, Yang X‐L, Wang X‐G, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, Si H‐R, Zhu Y, Li B, Huang C‐L et al. (2020) A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature 579, 270–273.
    1. Wong JEL, Leo YS & Tan CC (2020) COVID‐19 in Singapore—current experience: critical global issues that require attention and action. JAMA 323, 1243–1244.
    1. Remuzzi A & Remuzzi G (2020) COVID‐19 and Italy: what next? Lancet 395, 1225–1228.
    1. World Health Organization Coronavirus.
    1. Kelso JK, Milne GJ & Kelly H (2009) Simulation suggests that rapid activation of social distancing can arrest epidemic development due to a novel strain of influenza. BMC Public Health 9, 117.
    1. Tay MZ, Poh CM, Rénia L, MacAry PA & Ng LFP (2020) The trinity of COVID‐ 19: immunity, inflammation and intervention. Nat Rev Immunol 20, 1–12.
    1. Vabret A, Mourez T, Dina J, van der Hoek L, Gouarin S, Petitjean J, Brouard J & Freymuth F (2005) Human coronavirus NL63, France. Emerg Infect Dis 11, 1225–1229.
    1. Kahn JS & McIntosh K (2005) History and recent advances in coronavirus discovery. Pediatr Infect Dis J 24, S223.
    1. Siddell SG, Anderson R, Cavanagh D, Fujiwara K, Klenk HD, Macnaughton MR, Pensaert M, Stohlman SA, Sturman L & van der Zeijst BAM (1983) Coronaviridae. Intervirology 20, 181–189.
    1. Su S, Wong G, Shi W, Liu J, Lai ACK, Zhou J, Liu W, Bi Y & Gao GF (2016) Epidemiology, genetic recombination, and pathogenesis of coronaviruses. Trends Microbiol 24, 490–502.
    1. CDC (2020) Coronavirus|Human coronavirus types. CDC, Atlanta, GA.
    1. Masters PS (2006) The molecular biology of coronaviruses. In Advances in Virus Research (Kielian M, Mettenleiter T & Roossinck M, eds), pp. 193–292. Academic Press, Cambridge, MA.
    1. Wevers BA & van der Hoek L (2009) Recently discovered human coronaviruses. Clin Lab Med 29, 715–724.
    1. Gaunt ER, Hardie A, Claas ECJ, Simmonds P & Templeton KE (2010) Epidemiology and clinical presentations of the four human coronaviruses 229E, HKU1, NL63, and OC43 detected over 3 years using a novel multiplex real‐time PCR method. J Clin Microbiol 48, 2940–2947.
    1. Delamater PL, Street EJ, Leslie TF, Yang YT & Jacobsen KH (2019) Complexity of the basic reproduction number (R0). Emerg Infect Dis 25, 1–4.
    1. van den Driessche P & Watmough J (2008) Further notes on the basic reproduction number. In Mathematical Epidemiology (Brauer F, van den Driessche P & Wu J, eds), pp. 159–178. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
    1. Andreasen V (2011) The final size of an epidemic and its relation to the basic reproduction number. Bull Math Biol 73, 2305–2321.
    1. Dietz K (1993) The estimation of the basic reproduction number for infectious diseases. Stat Methods Med Res 2, 23–41.
    1. Xu R‐H, He J‐F, Evans MR, Peng G‐W, Field HE, Yu D‐W, Lee C‐K, Luo H‐M, Lin W‐S, Lin P et al. (2004) Epidemiologic clues to SARS origin in China. Emerg Infect Dis 10, 1030–1037.
    1. Singhal T (2020) A review of coronavirus disease‐2019 (COVID‐19). Indian J Pediatr 87, 281–286.
    1. CDC (2019) SARS|Basics factsheet. CDC, Atlanta, GA.
    1. Breugelmans JG, Zucs P, Porten K, Broll S, Niedrig M, Ammon A & Krause G (2004) SARS transmission and commercial aircraft. Emerg Infect Dis 10, 1502–1503.
    1. Lau ALD, Chi I, Cummins RA, Lee TMC, Chou K‐L & Chung LWM (2008) The SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) pandemic in Hong Kong: effects on the subjective wellbeing of elderly and younger people. Aging Ment Health 12, 746–760.
    1. Peiris J, Lai S, Poon L, Guan Y, Yam L, Lim W, Nicholls J, Yee W, Yan W, Cheung M et al. (2003) Coronavirus as a possible cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Lancet 361, 1319–1325.
    1. Chan‐Yeung M & Xu R‐H (2003) SARS: epidemiology. Respirology 8, S9–S14.
    1. Bell DM (2004) Public health interventions and SARS spread, 2003. Emerg Infect Dis 10, 1900–1906.
    1. Bolles M, Donaldson E & Baric R (2011) SARS‐CoV and emergent coronaviruses: viral determinants of interspecies transmission. Curr Opin Virol 1, 624–634.
    1. Hawryluck L, Gold WL, Robinson S, Pogorski S, Galea S & Styra R (2004) SARS control and psychological effects of quarantine, Toronto, Canada. Emerg Infect Dis 10, 1206–1212.
    1. Du L, Yang Y, Zhou Y, Lu L, Li F & Jiang S (2017) MERS‐CoV spike protein: a key target for antivirals. Expert Opin Ther Targets 21, 131–143.
    1. Killerby ME, Biggs HM, Midgley CM, Gerber SI & Watson JT (2020) Middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus transmission. Emerg Infect Dis 26, 191–198.
    1. World Health Organization Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean WHO EMRO | MERS outbreaks | MERS‐CoV | Health topics.
    1. Nowotny N & Kolodziejek J (2014) Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS‐CoV) in dromedary camels, Oman, 2013. Eurosurveillance 19, 20781.
    1. Ahmed AE (2018) Estimating survival rates in MERS‐CoV patients 14 and 45 days after experiencing symptoms and determining the differences in survival rates by demographic data, disease characteristics and regions: a worldwide study. Epidemiol Infect 146, 489–495.
    1. Zumla A, Hui DS & Perlman S (2015) Middle East respiratory syndrome. Lancet 386, 995–1007.
    1. CDC (2020) International locations with confirmed COVID‐19 cases. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA.
    1. Coronavirus update (Live): 3,916,338 cases and 270,711 deaths from COVID‐19 virus pandemic – Worldometer.
    1. Rothan HA & Byrareddy SN (2020) The epidemiology and pathogenesis of coronavirus disease (COVID‐19) outbreak. J Autoimmun 109, 102433.
    1. The Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia Emergency Response Epidemiology Team (2020) The Epidemiological Characteristics of an Outbreak of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Diseases (COVID‐19) — China. China CDC Weekly 2, 113–122.
    1. Wang C, Liu Z, Chen Z, Huang X, Xu M, He T & Zhang Z (2020) The establishment of reference sequence for SARS‐CoV‐2 and variation analysis. J Med Virol 92, 667–674.
    1. Andersen KG, Rambaut A, Lipkin WI, Holmes EC & Garry RF (2020) The proximal origin of SARS‐CoV‐2. Nat Med 26, 450–452.
    1. Liu Y, Gayle AA, Wilder‐Smith A & Rocklöv J (2020) The reproductive number of COVID‐19 is higher compared to SARS coronavirus. J Travel Med 27, taaa021.
    1. World Health Organization COVID‐19 situation reports.
    1. Riou J & Althaus CL (2020) Pattern of early human‐to‐human transmission of Wuhan 2019 novel coronavirus (2019‐nCoV), December 2019 to January 2020. Eurosurveillance, 25.
    1. Zou L, Ruan F, Huang M, Liang L, Huang H, Hong Z, Yu J, Kang M, Song Y, Xia J et al. (2020) SARS‐CoV‐2 viral load in upper respiratory specimens of infected patients. N Engl J Med 382, 1177–1179.
    1. Garg S (2020) Hospitalization rates and characteristics of patients hospitalized with laboratory‐confirmed coronavirus disease 2019 – COVID‐NET, 14 states, March 1–30, 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 69, 458–464.
    1. Michelen M, Jones N & Stavropoulou C. In patients of COVID‐19, what are the symptoms and clinical features of mild and moderate cases? CEBM.
    1. Auwaerter PG. Coronavirus COVID‐19 (SARS‐CoV‐2) | Johns Hopkins ABX guide.
    1. Verity R, Okell LC, Dorigatti I, Winskill P, Whittaker C, Imai N, Cuomo‐Dannenburg G, Thompson H, Walker PGT, Fu H et al. (2020) Estimates of the severity of coronavirus disease 2019: a model‐based analysis. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 20, 669–677.
    1. Yang X, Yu Y, Xu J, Shu H, Xia J, Liu H, Wu Y, Zhang L, Yu Z, Fang M et al. (2020) Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with SARS‐CoV‐2 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a single‐centered, retrospective, observational study. Lancet Respir Med 8, 475–481.
    1. Bhatraju PK, Ghassemieh BJ, Nichols M, Kim R, Jerome KR, Nalla AK, Greninger AL, Pipavath S, Wurfel MM, Evans L et al. (2020) Covid‐19 in critically Ill patients in the Seattle region – case series. N Engl J Med 382, 2012–2022.
    1. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, Zhang L, Fan G, Xu J, Gu X et al. (2020) Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 395, 497–506.
    1. Gattinoni L, Chiumello D, Caironi P, Busana M, Romitti F, Brazzi L & Camporota L (2020) COVID‐19 pneumonia: different respiratory treatments for different phenotypes?. Intensive Care Medicine, 1–4.
    1. Gattinoni L, Quintel M & Marini JJ (2020) “Less is more” in mechanical ventilation. Intensive Care Med 46, 780–782.
    1. Young PJ, Bailey MJ, Bass F, Beasley RW, Freebairn RC, Hammond NE, van Haren FMP, Harward ML, Henderson SJ, Mackle DM et al. (2019) Randomised evaluation of active control of temperature versus ordinary temperature management (REACTOR) trial. Intensive Care Med 45, 1382–1391.
    1. Ryan M & Levy MM (2003) Clinical review: fever in intensive care unit patients. Crit Care 7, 221–225.
    1. Hu Z, Song C, Xu C, Jin G, Chen Y, Xu X, Ma H, Chen W, Lin Y, Zheng Y et al. (2020) Clinical characteristics of 24 asymptomatic infections with COVID‐19 screened among close contacts in Nanjing, China. Sci China Life Sci 63, 706–711.
    1. Lewnard JA & Lo NC (2020) Scientific and ethical basis for social‐distancing interventions against COVID‐19. Lancet Infect Dis 20, 631–633.
    1. Anderson RM, Heesterbeek H, Klinkenberg D & Hollingsworth TD (2020) How will country‐based mitigation measures influence the course of the COVID‐19 epidemic? Lancet 395, 931–934.
    1. van Dorn A, Cooney RE & Sabin ML (2020) COVID‐19 exacerbating inequalities in the US. Lancet 395, 1243–1244.
    1. Black JRM, Bailey C, Przewrocka J, Dijkstra KK & Swanton C (2020) COVID‐19: the case for health‐care worker screening to prevent hospital transmission. Lancet 395, 1418–1420.
    1. Al‐Muharraqi MA (2020) Testing recommendation for COVID‐19 (SARS‐CoV‐2) in patients planned for surgery – continuing the service and ‘suppressing’ the pandemic. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 20, 30164–30169.
    1. Gandhi M, Yokoe DS & Havlir DV (2020) Asymptomatic transmission, the Achilles' Heel of current strategies to control covid‐19. N Engl J Med 382, 2158–2160.
    1. Onder G, Rezza G & Brusaferro S (2020) Case‐fatality rate and characteristics of patients dying in relation to COVID‐19 in Italy. JAMA 323, 1775–1776.
    1. CDC People who are at higher risk for severe illness. CDC, Atlanta, GA.
    1. Poltronieri P, Sun B & Mallardo M (2015) RNA viruses: RNA roles in pathogenesis, coreplication and viral load. Curr Genomics 16, 327–335.
    1. Hoffmann M, Kleine‐Weber H, Schroeder S, Krüger N, Herrler T, Erichsen S, Schiergens TS, Herrler G, Wu N‐H, Nitsche A et al. (2020) SARS‐CoV‐2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and Is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell 181, 271–280.e8.
    1. Fehr AR & Perlman S (2015) Coronaviruses: an overview of their replication and pathogenesis. Methods Mol Biol 1282, 1–23.
    1. Frieman M & Baric R (2008) Mechanisms of severe acute respiratory syndrome pathogenesis and innate immunomodulation. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 72, 672–685, Table of Contents.
    1. Astuti I & Ysrafil (2020) Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2): an overview of viral structure and host response. Diabetes Metab Syndr Clin Res Rev 14, 407–412.
    1. Walls AC, Park Y‐J, Tortorici MA, Wall A, McGuire AT & Veesler D (2020) Structure, function, and antigenicity of the SARS‐CoV‐2 spike glycoprotein. Cell 181, 281–292.e6.
    1. Yan R, Zhang Y, Li Y, Xia L, Guo Y & Zhou Q (2020) Structural basis for the recognition of SARS‐CoV‐2 by full‐length human ACE2. Science 367, 1444–1448.
    1. Kuba K, Imai Y & Penninger JM (2006) Angiotensin‐converting enzyme 2 in lung diseases. Curr Opin Pharmacol 6, 271–276.
    1. Li F (2015) Receptor recognition mechanisms of coronaviruses: a decade of structural studies. J Virol 89, 1954–1964.
    1. Verdecchia P, Cavallini C, Spanevello A & Angeli F (2020) The pivotal link between ACE2 deficiency and SARS‐CoV‐2 infection. European Journal of Internal Medicine 20, 30151–30155.
    1. Wrapp D, Wang N, Corbett KS, Goldsmith JA, Hsieh C‐L, Abiona O, Graham BS & McLellan JS (2020) Cryo‐EM structure of the 2019‐nCoV spike in the prefusion conformation. Science 367, 1260–1263.
    1. He J, Tao H, Yan Y, Huang S‐Y & Xiao Y (2020) Molecular mechanism of evolution and human infection with SARS‐CoV‐2. Viruses 12, 428.
    1. Qiu Y, Zhao Y‐B, Wang Q, Li J‐Y, Zhou Z‐J, Liao C‐H & Ge X‐Y (2020) Predicting the angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) utilizing capability as the receptor of SARS‐CoV‐2. Microbes Infect.
    1. Xia S, Liu M, Wang C, Xu W, Lan Q, Feng S, Qi F, Bao L, Du L, Liu S et al. (2020) Inhibition of SARS‐CoV‐2 (previously 2019‐nCoV) infection by a highly potent pan‐coronavirus fusion inhibitor targeting its spike protein that harbors a high capacity to mediate membrane fusion. Cell Res 30, 343–355.
    1. Gao J, Lu G, Qi J, Li Y, Wu Y, Deng Y, Geng H, Li H, Wang Q, Xiao H et al. (2013) Structure of the fusion core and inhibition of fusion by a heptad repeat peptide derived from the S protein of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. J Virol 87, 13134–13140.
    1. Burkard C, Verheije MH, Wicht O, van Kasteren SI, van Kuppeveld FJ, Haagmans BL, Pelkmans L & Rottier PJM (2014) Coronavirus cell entry occurs through the endo‐/lysosomal pathway in a proteolysis‐dependent manner. PLoS Pathog 10, e1004502.
    1. Shirato K, Kawase M & Matsuyama S (2018) Wild‐type human coronaviruses prefer cell‐surface TMPRSS2 to endosomal cathepsins for cell entry. Virology 517, 9–15.
    1. Guo Y‐R, Cao Q‐D, Hong Z‐S, Tan Y‐Y, Chen S‐D, Jin H‐J, Tan K‐S, Wang D‐Y & Yan Y (2020) The origin, transmission and clinical therapies on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) outbreak – an update on the status. Mil Med Res 7, 11.
    1. Dietz L, Horve PF, Coil DA, Fretz M, Eisen JA & Wymelenberg KVD(2020) 2019 Novel coronavirus (COVID‐19) pandemic: built environment considerations to reduce transmission. mSystems 5.
    1. CDC (2020) Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) – transmission. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA.
    1. Blocken B, Malizia F, van Druenen T & Marchal T (2020). Towards aerodynamically equivalent COVID19 1.5 m social distancing for walking and running. Eindhoven, the Netherlands: Eindhoven University of Technology. Retrieved from (version 21 April 2020).
    1. van Doremalen N, Bushmaker T, Morris DH, Holbrook MG, Gamble A, Williamson BN, Tamin A, Harcourt JL, Thornburg NJ, Gerber SI et al. (2020) Aerosol and surface stability of SARS‐CoV‐2 as compared with SARS‐CoV‐1. N Engl J Med 382, 1564–1567.
    1. Bridge JA (2017) Reverse transcription‐polymerase chain reaction molecular testing of cytology specimens: pre‐analytic and analytic factors. Cancer Cytopathol 125, 11–19.
    1. Wong SC‐Y, Kwong RT‐S, Wu TC, Chan JWM, Chu MY, Lee SY, Wong HY & Lung DC (2020) Risk of nosocomial transmission of coronavirus disease 2019: an experience in a general ward setting in Hong Kong. J Hosp Infect 20, 30174–30182.
    1. Konrad R, Eberle U, Dangel A, Treis B, Berger A, Bengs K, Fingerle V, Liebl B, Ackermann N & Sing A (2020) Rapid establishment of laboratory diagnostics for the novel coronavirus SARS‐CoV‐2 in Bavaria, Germany, February 2020. Eurosurveillance 25, 2000173.
    1. Lorusso A, Calistri P, Mercante MT, Monaco F, Portanti O, Marcacci M, Cammà C, Rinaldi A, Mangone I, Di Pasquale A et al. (2020) A “One‐Health” approach for diagnosis and molecular characterization of SARS‐CoV‐2 in Italy. One Health 10, 100135.
    1. Freeman WM, Walker SJ & Vrana KE (1999) Quantitative RT‐PCR: pitfalls and potential. Biotechniques 26, 112–125.
    1. Romsos EL & Vallone PM (2015) Rapid PCR of STR markers: applications to human identification. Forensic Sci Int Genet 18, 90–99.
    1. Tahamtan A & Ardebili A (2020) Real‐time RT‐PCR in COVID‐19 detection: issues affecting the results. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 20, 453–454.
    1. Xia T, Li J, Gao J & Xu X (2020) Small solitary ground‐glass nodule on CT as an initial manifestation of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) pneumonia. Korean J Radiol 21, 545–549.
    1. Askham P (2020) From Iceland – COVID‐19 screening swab shortage continues. Reyk Grapevine.
    1. Comparison of two commercial molecular tests and a laboratory‐developed modification of the CDC 2019‐nCOV RT‐PCR assay for the qualitative detection of SARS‐CoV‐2 from upper respiratory tract specimens. medRxiv.
    1. Abbott RealTime SARS‐CoV‐2 assay (EUA). Abbott Molecular.
    1. VRI multiplex test. Vivalytic.
    1. Raeisossadati MJ, Danesh NM, Borna F, Gholamzad M, Ramezani M, Abnous K & Taghdisi SM (2016) Lateral flow based immunobiosensors for detection of food contaminants. Biosens Bioelectron 86, 235–246.
    1. Abbott launches COVID‐19 antibody test.
    1. Roche's COVID‐19 antibody test receives FDA Emergency Use Authorization and is available in markets accepting the CE mark. Diagnostics.
    1. Roche takes on Abbott in Covid‐19 antibody testing (2020). .
    1. Perera RA, Mok CK, Tsang OT, Lv H, Ko RL, Wu NC, Yuan M, Leung WS, Chan JM, Chik TS et al. (2020) Serological assays for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2), March 2020. Eurosurveillance 25, 2000421.
    1. Infantino M, Damiani A, Gobbi FL, Grossi V, Lari B, Macchia D, Casprini P, Veneziani F, Villalta D, Bizzaro N et al. (2020) Serological assays for SARS‐CoV‐2 infectious disease: benefits, limitations and perspectives. Isr Med Assoc J 22, 203–210.
    1. Amanat F, Stadlbauer D, Strohmeier S, Nguyen THO, Chromikova V, McMahon M, Jiang K, Arunkumar GA, Jurczyszak D, Polanco J et al. (2020) A serological assay to detect SARS‐CoV‐2 seroconversion in humans. Nat Med 1–4. 10.1038/s41591-020-0913-5
    1. Vidyasagar A (2018) What is CRISPR? .
    1. Zhang F, Abudayyeh OO & Gootenberg JS. A protocol for detection of COVID‐19 using CRISPR diagnostics. 8.
    1. Chen JS, Ma E, Harrington LB, Costa MD, Tian X, Palefsky JM & Doudna JA (2018) CRISPR‐Cas12a target binding unleashes indiscriminate single‐stranded DNase activity. Science 360, 436–439.
    1. Sherlock Biosciences receives FDA emergency use authorization for CRISPR SARS‐CoV‐2 rapid diagnostic. Sherlock Biosciences.
    1. CDC (2020) Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) situation summary. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA.
    1. Richardson S, Hirsch JS, Narasimhan M, Crawford JM, McGinn T, Davidson KW, the Northwell COVID‐19 Research Consortium , Barnaby DP, Becker LB, Chelico JD et al. (2020) Presenting characteristics, comorbidities, and outcomes among 5700 patients hospitalized with COVID‐19 in the New York City area. JAMA 323, 2052–2059.
    1. Kupferschmidt K & Cohen J (2020) Race to find COVID‐19 treatments accelerates. Science 367, 1412–1413.
    1. Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, Yang X, Liu J, Xu M, Shi Z, Hu Z, Zhong W & Xiao G (2020) Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019‐nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res 30, 269–271.
    1. Sheahan TP, Sims AC, Zhou S, Graham RL, Pruijssers AJ, Agostini ML, Leist SR, Schäfer A, Dinnon KH, Stevens LJ et al. (2020) An orally bioavailable broad‐spectrum antiviral inhibits SARS‐CoV‐2 in human airway epithelial cell cultures and multiple coronaviruses in mice. Sci Transl Med 12.
    1. Furuta Y, Komeno T & Nakamura T (2017) Favipiravir (T‐705), a broad spectrum inhibitor of viral RNA polymerase. Proc Jpn Acad Ser B Phys Biol Sci 93, 449–463.
    1. Tchesnokov EP, Feng JY, Porter DP & Götte M (2019) Mechanism of inhibition of ebola virus RNA‐dependent RNA polymerase by remdesivir Viruses 11, 326.
    1. Gilead Sciences Remdesivir Clinical Trials.
    1. Gilead Sciences . Gilead announces results from phase 3 trial of investigational antiviral remdesivir in patients with severe COVID‐19.
    1. Subramanian S (2020) Some FDA approved drugs exhibit binding affinity as high as ‐16.0 kcal/mol against COVID‐19 Main Protease (Mpro): a molecular docking study IndiaRxiv.
    1. Ito K, Ohmagari N, Mikami A & Sugiura W (2020) Major ongoing clinical trials for COVID‐19 treatment and studies currently being conducted or scheduled in Japan. Global Health & Medicine 2, 96–101.
    1. CDC (2020) Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA.
    1. Savarino A, Di Trani L, Donatelli I, Cauda R & Cassone A (2006) New insights into the antiviral effects of chloroquine. Lancet Infect Dis 6, 67–69.
    1. Gao J, Tian Z & Yang X (2020) Breakthrough: chloroquine phosphate has shown apparent efficacy in treatment of COVID‐19 associated pneumonia in clinical studies. Biosci Trends 14, 72–73.
    1. FDA emergency use authorization. FDA.
    1. Stricker RB & Fesler M (2020) Pre‐exposure prophylaxis with hydroxychloroquine for COVID‐19 disease. Open Science Framework.
    1. Suranagi UD, Rehan HS & Goyal N (2020) Review of current evidence of hydroxychloroquine in pharmacotherapy of COVID‐19. medRxiv. 10.1101/2020.04.16.20068205
    1. Shamshirian A, Hessami A, Heydari K, Alizadeh‐Navaei R, Ebrahimzadeh MA, Yip GW, Ghasemian R, Behnamfar M, Baradaran H, Aboufazeli E et al. (2020) Hydroxychloroquine versus COVID‐19: a rapid systematic review and meta‐analysis. medRxiv 10.1101/2020.04.14.20065276
    1. Mahevas M, Tran V‐T, Roumier M, Chabrol A, Paule R, Guillaud C, Gallien S, Lepeule R, Szwebel T‐A, Lescure X et al. (2020) No evidence of clinical efficacy of hydroxychloroquine in patients hospitalized for COVID‐19 infection with oxygen requirement: results of a study using routinely collected data to emulate a target trial. medRxiv 10.1101/2020.04.10.20060699
    1. Magagnoli J, Narendran S, Pereira F, Cummings T, Hardin JW, Sutton SS & Ambati J (2020) Outcomes of hydroxychloroquine usage in United States veterans hospitalized with Covid‐19. medRxiv, 10.1101/2020.04.16.20065920
    1. Cvetkovic RS & Goa KL (2003) Lopinavir/ritonavir: a review of its use in the management of HIV infection. Drugs 63, 769–802.
    1. Cao B, Wang Y, Wen D, Liu W, Wang J, Fan G, Ruan L, Song B, Cai Y, Wei M et al. (2020) A trial of lopinavir‐ritonavir in adults hospitalized with severe Covid‐19. N Engl J Med 382, 1787–1799.
    1. Rönnblom L & Leonard D (2019) Interferon pathway in SLE: one key to unlocking the mystery of the disease. Lupus Sci Med 6, e000270.
    1. Sallard E, Lescure F‐X, Yazdanpanah Y, Mentre F & Peiffer‐Smadja N (2020) Type 1 interferons as a potential treatment against COVID‐19. Antiviral Res 178, 104791.
    1. Lokugamage KG, Hage A, Schindewolf C, Rajsbaum R & Menachery VD (2020) SARS‐CoV‐2 is sensitive to type I interferon pretreatment. bioRxiv 10.1101/2020.03.07.982264.
    1. Halford B. An emerging antiviral takes aim at COVID‐19. Chem Eng News.
    1. Abbott TR, Dhamdhere G, Liu Y, Lin X, Goudy L, Zeng L, Chemparathy A, Chmura S, Heaton NS, Debs R et al. (2020) Development of CRISPR as a prophylactic strategy to combat novel coronavirus and influenza. bioRxiv 10.1101/2020.03.13.991307
    1. O'Connell MR (2019) Molecular mechanisms of RNA targeting by Cas13‐containing type VI CRISPR‐Cas systems. J Mol Biol 431, 66–87.
    1. To KK‐W, Tsang OT‐Y, Leung W‐S, Tam AR, Wu T‐C, Lung DC, Yip CC‐Y, Cai J‐P, Chan JM‐C, Chik TS‐H et al. (2020) Temporal profiles of viral load in posterior oropharyngeal saliva samples and serum antibody responses during infection by SARS‐CoV‐2: an observational cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis 20, 565–574.
    1. Wang C, Li W, Drabek D, Okba NMA, van Haperen R, Osterhaus ADME, van Kuppeveld FJM, Haagmans BL, Grosveld F & Bosch B‐J (2020) A human monoclonal antibody blocking SARS‐CoV‐2 infection. Nat Commun 11, 1–6.
    1. Kuznia R.The timetable for a coronavirus vaccine is 18 months. Experts say that's risky. CNN.
    1. Kamisar B. Oxford scientist says its vaccine is making headway, could show efficacy by June. NBC News.
    1. Loftus P (2020) WSJ news exclusive | Drugmaker moderna delivers first experimental coronavirus vaccine for human testing. Wall Str J.
    1. Kapadia SU, Rose JK, Lamirande E, Vogel L, Subbarao K & Roberts A (2005) Long‐term protection from SARS coronavirus infection conferred by a single immunization with an attenuated VSV‐based vaccine. Virology 340, 174–182.
    1. Detmer A & Glenting J (2006) Live bacterial vaccines – a review and identification of potential hazards. Microb Cell Fact 5, 23.
    1. Prompetchara E, Ketloy C & Palaga T (2020) Immune responses in COVID‐19 and potential vaccines: Lessons learned from SARS and MERS epidemic. Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol 38, 1–9.
    1. He Y, Zhou Y, Liu S, Kou Z, Li W, Farzan M & Jiang S (2004) Receptor‐binding domain of SARS‐CoV spike protein induces highly potent neutralizing antibodies: implication for developing subunit vaccine. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 324, 773–781.
    1. Lanese N (2020) First coronavirus vaccine trial in the US is recruiting volunteers. .
    1. Jin H, Xiao C, Chen Z, Kang Y, Ma Y, Zhu K, Xie Q, Tu Y, Yu Y & Wang B (2005) Induction of Th1 type response by DNA vaccinations with N, M, and E genes against SARS‐CoV in mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 328, 979–986.
    1. Tan L & Sun X (2018) Recent advances in mRNA vaccine delivery. Nano Res 11, 5338–5354.
    1. Amanat F & Krammer F (2020) SARS‐CoV‐2 vaccines: status report. Immunity 52, 583–589.
    1. About the COVID‐19 vaccine trials. Univ Oxf COVID‐19 Oxf Vaccine Tral.
    1. Bråve A, Ljungberg K, Wahren B & Liu MA (2007) Vaccine delivery methods using viral vectors. Mol Pharm 4, 18–32.
    1. CDC (2020) International locations with confirmed COVID‐19 cases. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA.
    1. Burmistrz M, Krakowski K & Krawczyk‐Balska A (2020) RNA‐targeting CRISPR‐Cas systems and their applications. Int J Mol Sci 21, 1122.

Source: PubMed

Patrocinadores e Colaboradores

Condições médicas

Intervenções de drogas

3
Se inscrever