Fasting and Its Impact on Skin Anatomy, Physiology, and Physiopathology: A Comprehensive Review of the Literature

Nicola Luigi Bragazzi, Maha Sellami, Iman Salem, Rosalynn Conic, Mark Kimak, Paolo Daniele Maria Pigatto, Giovanni Damiani, Nicola Luigi Bragazzi, Maha Sellami, Iman Salem, Rosalynn Conic, Mark Kimak, Paolo Daniele Maria Pigatto, Giovanni Damiani

Abstract

Skin serves as the first protective line and barrier of the body. Like many other organs, skin can be affected by several disorders in response to external factors such as pathogens, ultraviolet light, and pollution, as well as endogenous alterations related to aging and/or oxidative stress disturbance. Researchers have reported new insights into how skin cells are altered in response to caloric restriction diets in mammals. One of the most well-known caloric restriction diets is the Ramadan intermittent fasting, which is a radical change in the diet plan of practitioners for the period of one lunar month. Ramadan fasting represents the fourth of the five pillars of the Islamic creed. Even though infirm individuals are waived to take part in this religious duty, patients with various health problems, including those with different skin disorders, might choose to share this event with peers and family members. No standardized protocols or guidelines exist, however, to advise their physicians on the proper management of their patients' condition during fasting. With an increasing Muslim population living in Western countries, this topic has started to draw substantial attention, not only of Middle-Eastern physicians, but also of clinicians in the West. For this purpose, we carried out a comprehensive overview on the topic. Our main findings are that: (1) there is a strong need for evidence-based suggestions and guidance. Literature on the impact of the Ramadan fasting, as well as of other kinds of fasting, on skin diseases is scarce and of poor quality, as well as the information available from the Internet; (2) patients willing to fast should be advised about the importance of taking proper treatments or consider alternative options including administration of trans-dermal/topical drugs, as they are permitted during daylight hours. Further, non-compliance has important, clinical and economic implications for an effective patient management.

Keywords: Ramadan or intermittent fasting; caloric restriction; chronotherapy and chronomedicine; compliance and adherence to treatment; skin disorders.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Factors affecting the skin. Abbreviations: UV (ultraviolet).
Figure 2
Figure 2
The hypothesized mechanisms of the biphasic effect of intermittent fasting on wound healing. Abbreviations: IGFBP-1 (insulin-like growth factor binding protein 1); IGFBP-3 (insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3); P5C (pyrroline-5-carboxylate); PEP (phosphoenolpyruvate); PIF (prolidase inhibitor factor); PK (pyruvate kinase); TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor alpha); VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor).
Figure 3
Figure 3
The anti-aging effect of fasting. Abbreviations: CML (carboxymethyl lysine).
Figure 4
Figure 4
The major effects of fasting on skin anatomy, homeostasis dynamics and physiology. Abbreviations: CML (carboxymethyl lysine); HSCs (hematopoietic stem cells); IGF-1 (insulin-like growth factor 1); NKs (natural killers); P5C (pyrroline-5-carboxylate); SCs (stem cells); VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor).

References

    1. Hay R.J., Johns N.E., Williams H.C., Bolliger I.W., Dellavalle R.P., Margolis D.J., Marks R., Naldi L., Weinstock M.A., Wulf S.K., et al. The global burden of skin disease in 2010: An analysis of the prevalence and impact of skin conditions. J. Investig. Dermatol. 2014;134:1527–1534. doi: 10.1038/jid.2013.446.
    1. Hollestein L.M., Nijsten T. An insight into the global burden of skin diseases. J. Investig. Dermatol. 2014;134:1499–1501. doi: 10.1038/jid.2013.513.
    1. Vos T., Flaxman A.D., Naghavi M., Lozano R., Michaud C., Ezzati M., Shibuya K., Salomon J.A., Abdalla S., Aboyans V., et al. Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990–2010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet. 2012;380:2163–2196. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61729-2.
    1. Seth D., Cheldize K., Brown D., Freeman E.F. Global Burden of Skin Disease: Inequities and Innovations. Curr. Dermatol. Rep. 2017;6:204–210. doi: 10.1007/s13671-017-0192-7.
    1. Lewis V., Finlay A.Y. 10 years experience of the Dermatology Life Quality Index (DLQI) J. Investig. Dermatol. Symp. Proc. 2004;9:169–180. doi: 10.1111/j.1087-0024.2004.09113.x.
    1. Cecchi L., D’Amato G., Annesi-Maesano I. External exposome and allergic respiratory and skin diseases. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2018;141:846–857. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2018.01.016.
    1. Katta R., Desai S.P. Diet and dermatology: The role of dietary intervention in skin disease. J. Clin. Aesthet. Dermatol. 2014;7:46–51.
    1. Barrea L., Nappi F., Di Somma C., Savanelli M.C., Falco A., Balato A., Balato N., Savastano S. Environmental Risk Factors in Psoriasis: The Point of View of the Nutritionist. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 2016;13:743. doi: 10.3390/ijerph13070743.
    1. Claudel J.P., Auffret N., Leccia M.T., Poli F., Dréno B. Acne and nutrition: Hypotheses, myths and facts. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 2018;32:1631–1637. doi: 10.1111/jdv.14998.
    1. Saha K., Hornyak T.J., Eckert R.L. Epigenetic cancer prevention mechanisms in skin cancer. AAPS J. 2013;15:1064–1071. doi: 10.1208/s12248-013-9513-3.
    1. Alhamdan B.A., Garcia-Alvarez A., Alzahrnai A.H., Karanxha J., Stretchberry D.R., Contrera K.J., Utria A.F., Cheskin L.J. Alternate-day versus daily energy restriction diets: Which is more effective for weight loss? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes. Sci. Pract. 2016;2:293–302. doi: 10.1002/osp4.52.
    1. Johnstone A. Fasting for weight loss: An effective strategy or latest dieting trend? Int. J. Obes. (Lond.) 2015;39:727–733. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2014.214.
    1. Longo V.D., Mattson M.P. Fasting: Molecular mechanisms and clinical applications. Cell MeTable. 2014;19:181–192. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2013.12.008.
    1. Sailaja B.S., He X.C., Li L. Stem Cells Matter in Response to Fasting. Cell Rep. 2015;13:2325–2326. doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2015.12.008.
    1. Segovia-Siapco G., Sabaté J. Health and sustainability outcomes of vegetarian dietary patterns: A revisit of the EPIC-Oxford and the Adventist Health Study-2 cohorts. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2018 doi: 10.1038/s41430-018-0310-z. in press.
    1. Qoran, Surat 2 “Al-Baqarah”, ayyat (verse) 183. [(accessed on 1 December 2018)]; Available online: .
    1. Berbari A.E., Daouk N.A., Mallat S.G., Jurjus A.R. In: Ramadan Fasting in Health and Disease. Berbari A.E., Mancia G., editors. Springer; Milan, Italy: 2012. Special Issues in Hypertension.
    1. Günaydin G.P., Dogan N.O., Çevik Y., Korkmaz H., Savrun A., Çıkrıkçı G. Evaluation of Patients with Renal Colic that Present to an Emergency Department During the Month of Ramadan. J. Acad. Emerg. Med. 2013;12:24–26.
    1. Qoran, Surat 2 “Al-Baqarah”, ayyat (verses) 185–186. [(accessed on 1 December 2018)]; Available online: .
    1. Al Wakeel J., Mitwalli A.H., Alsuwaida A., Al Ghonaim M., Usama S., Hayat A., Shah I.H. Recommendations for fasting in Ramadan for patients on peritoneal dialysis. Perit. Dial. Int. 2013;33:86–91. doi: 10.3747/pdi.2010.00095.
    1. Emami-Naini A., Roomizadeh P., Baradaran A., Abedini A., Abtahi M. Ramadan fasting and patients with renal diseases: A mini review of the literature. J. Res. Med. Sci. 2013;18:711–716.
    1. Bragazzi N.L. Ramadan fasting and chronic kidney disease: Does estimated glomerular filtration rate change after and before Ramadan? Insights from a mini meta-analysis. Int. J. Nephrol. Renovasc. Dis. 2015;8:53–57. doi: 10.2147/IJNRD.S61718.
    1. Bragazzi N.L. Ramadan fasting and chronic kidney disease: A systematic review. J. Res. Med. Sci. 2014;19:665–676.
    1. Oláh A., Szöllősi A.G., Bíró T. The channel physiology of the skin. Rev. Physiol. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2012;163:65–131.
    1. Nie J., Fu X., Han W. Microenvironment-dependent homeostasis and differentiation of epidermal basal undifferentiated keratinocytes and their clinical applications in skin repair. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 2013;27:531–535. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-3083.2012.04704.x.
    1. Tareen S.H.K., Kutmon M., Adriaens M.E., Mariman E.C.M., de Kok T.M., Arts I.C.W., Evelo C.T. Exploring the cellular network of metabolic flexibility in the adipose tissue. Genes Nutr. 2018;13:17. doi: 10.1186/s12263-018-0609-3.
    1. Pasparakis M., Haase I., Nestle F.O. Mechanisms regulating skin immunity and inflammation. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2014;14:289–301. doi: 10.1038/nri3646.
    1. Sil P., Wong S.W., Martinez J. More Than Skin Deep: Autophagy Is Vital for Skin Barrier Function. Front. Immunol. 2018;9:1376. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01376.
    1. Wierzbicka J.M., Żmijewski M.A., Piotrowska A., Nedoszytko B., Lange M., Tuckey R.C., Slominski A.T. Bioactive forms of vitamin D selectively stimulate the skin analog of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis in human epidermal keratinocytes. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 2016;437:312–322. doi: 10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.006.
    1. Gonzalez A.C., Costa T.F., Andrade Z.A., Medrado A.R. Wound healing—A literature review. An. Bras. Dermatol. 2016;91:614–620. doi: 10.1590/abd1806-4841.20164741.
    1. Al-Zoman A.Y., Al-Asmari A.K. Pattern of skin diseases at Riyadh Military Hospital. Egyp. Dermatol. Online J. 2008;4:4.
    1. El-Essawi D., Musial J.L., Hammad A., Lim H.W. A survey of skin disease and skin-related issues in Arab Americans. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2007;56:933–938. doi: 10.1016/j.jaad.2007.01.031.
    1. Varady K.A., Roohk D.J., McEvoy-Hein B.K., Gaylinn B.D., Thorner M.O., Hellerstein M.K. Modified alternate-day fasting regimens reduce cell proliferation rates to a similar extent as daily calorie restriction in mice. FASEB J. 2008;22:2090–2096. doi: 10.1096/fj.07-098178.
    1. Brandhorst S., Choi I.Y., Wei M., Cheng C.W., Sedrakyan S., Navarrete G., Dubeau L., Yap L.P., Park R., Vinciguerra M., et al. A Periodic Diet that Mimics Fasting Promotes Multi-System Regeneration, Enhanced Cognitive Performance, and Healthspan. Cell MeTable. 2015;22:86–99. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2015.05.012.
    1. Nieto R., Palmer R.M., Fernández-Fígares I., Pérez L., Prieto C. Effect of dietary protein quality, feed restriction and short-term fasting on protein synthesis and turnover in tissues of the growing chicken. Br. J. Nutr. 1994;72:499–507. doi: 10.1079/BJN19940054.
    1. Tomiyama A.J. Beyond interventions: Caloric restriction as a scientific model. Psychosom. Med. 2012;74:665–666. doi: 10.1097/PSY.0b013e31825fe211.
    1. Alverez L.C., Peters D.J., Murad H., Wright E.T., McGhee G., Drenick E.J. Changes in the epidermis during prolonged fasting. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1975;28:866–871. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/28.8.866.
    1. Forni M.F., Peloggia J., Braga T.T., Chinchilla J.E.O., Shinohara J., Navas C.A., Camara N.O.S., Kowaltowski A.J. Caloric Restriction Promotes Structural and Metabolic Changes in the Skin. Cell Rep. 2017;20:2678–2692. doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2017.08.052.
    1. Giannetti A., Rabbiosi G. Aspects of carbohydrate metabolism in rat skin in various experimental conditions. II. Changes induced by fasting. Boll. Soc. Ital. Biol. Sper. 1967;43:337–338.
    1. MacDonald I. Dietary carbohydrates and skin lipids. Br. J. Dermatol. 1967;79:119–121.
    1. Wu-Pong S., Elias P.M., Feingold K.R. Influence of altered serum cholesterol levels and fasting on cutaneous cholesterol synthesis. J. Investig. Dermatol. 1994;102:799–802. doi: 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12378556.
    1. Varani J., Bhagavathula N., Aslam M.N., Fay K., Warner R.L., Hanosh A., Barron A.G., Miller R.A. Inhibition of retinoic acid-induced skin irritation in calorie-restricted mice. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 2008;300:27–35. doi: 10.1007/s00403-007-0797-y.
    1. Hayati F., Maleki M., Pourmohammad M., Sardari K., Mohri M., Afkhami A. Influence of Short-term, Repeated Fasting on the Skin Wound Healing of Female Mice. Wounds. 2011;23:38–43.
    1. Hunt N.D., Li G.D., Zhu M., Miller M., Levette A., Chachich M.E., Spangler E.L., Allard J.S., Hyun D.H., Ingram D.K., et al. Effect of calorie restriction and refeeding on skin wound healing in the rat. Age (Dordr.) 2012;34:1453–1458. doi: 10.1007/s11357-011-9321-6.
    1. Miltyk W., Palka J.A. Potential role of pyrroline 5-carboxylate in regulation of collagen biosynthesis in cultured human skin fibroblasts. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A Mol. Integr. Physiol. 2000;125:265–271. doi: 10.1016/S1095-6433(99)00181-6.
    1. Cechowska-Pasko M., Pałka J. Expression of IGF-binding protein-1 phosphoisoforms in fasted rat skin and its role in regulation of collagen biosynthesis. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2003;134:703–711. doi: 10.1016/S1096-4959(03)00028-9.
    1. Cechowska-Pasko M., Palka J., Bańkowski E. Fasting-induced inhibition of collagen biosynthesis in rat skin. A possible role for phosphoenolpyruvate in this process. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 2004;265:203–208. doi: 10.1023/B:MCBI.0000044397.32748.23.
    1. Cheng C.W., Adams G.B., Perin L., Wei M., Zhou X., Lam B.S., Da Sacco S., Mirisola M., Quinn D.I., Dorff T.B., et al. Prolonged fasting reduces IGF-1/PKA to promote hematopoietic-stem-cell-based regeneration and reverse immunosuppression. Cell Stem Cell. 2014;14:810–823. doi: 10.1016/j.stem.2014.04.014.
    1. Bragazzi N.L., Briki W., Khabbache H., Rammouz I., Chamari K., Demaj T., Re T.S., Zouhir M. Ramadan Fasting and Patients with Cancer: State-of-the-Art and Future Prospects. Front. Oncol. 2016;6:27. doi: 10.3389/fonc.2016.00027.
    1. Birt D.F., Pelling J.C., White L.T., Dimitroff K., Barnett T. Influence of diet and calorie restriction on the initiation and promotion of skin carcinogenesis in the SENCAR mouse model. Cancer Res. 1991;51:1851–1854.
    1. Lu J., Xie L., Sylvester J., Wang J., Bai J., Baybutt R., Wang W. Different gene expression of skin tissues between mice with weight controlled by either calorie restriction or physical exercise. Exp. Biol. Med. (Maywood) 2007;232:473–480.
    1. Xie L., Jiang Y., Ouyang P., Chen J., Doan H., Herndon B., Sylvester J.E., Zhang K., Molteni A., Reichle M., et al. Effects of dietary calorie restriction or exercise on the PI3K and Ras signaling pathways in the skin of mice. J. Biol. Chem. 2007;282:28025–28035. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M604857200.
    1. Bhattacharyya T.K., Merz M., Thomas J.R. Modulation of cutaneous aging with calorie restriction in Fischer 344 rats: A histological study. Arch. Facial Plast. Surg. 2005;7:12–16. doi: 10.1001/archfaci.7.1.12.
    1. Cefalu W.T., Bell-Farrow A.D., Wang Z.Q., Sonntag W.E., Fu M.X., Baynes J.W., Thorpe S.R. Caloric restriction decreases age-dependent accumulation of the glycoxidation products, N epsilon-(carboxymethyl)lysine and pentosidine, in rat skin collagen. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 1995;50:B337–B341. doi: 10.1093/gerona/50A.6.B337.
    1. Smith D.L., Jr., Mattison J.A., Desmond R.A., Gardner J.P., Kimura M., Roth G.S., Ingram D.K., Allison D.B., Aviv A. Telomere dynamics in rhesus monkeys: No apparent effect of caloric restriction. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 2011;66:1163–1168. doi: 10.1093/gerona/glr136.
    1. Peterka E.S., Fusaro R.M. Cutaneous carbohydrate studies. IV. The skin glucose content of fasting diabetics with and without infection. J. Investig. Dermatol. 1966;46:459–463. doi: 10.1038/jid.1966.68.
    1. Peterka E.S., Fusaro R.M. Cutaneous carbohydrate studies. III. Comparison of the fasting glucose content of the skin of the back, arm, abdomen and thigh. J. Investig. Dermatol. 1966;47:410–411. doi: 10.1038/jid.1966.161.
    1. Longo V.D., Fontana L. Calorie restriction and cancer prevention: Metabolic and molecular mechanisms. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 2010;31:89–98. doi: 10.1016/j.tips.2009.11.004.
    1. Bronsnick T., Murzaku E.C., Rao B.K. Diet in dermatology: Part I. Atopic dermatitis, acne, and nonmelanoma skin cancer. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2014;71:1039.e1–1039.e12. doi: 10.1016/j.jaad.2014.06.015.
    1. Lithell H., Bruce A., Gustafsson I.B., Höglund N.J., Karlström B., Ljunghall K., Sjölin K., Venge P., Werner I., Vessby B. A fasting and vegetarian diet treatment trial on chronic inflammatory disorders. Acta Derm.Venereol. 1983;63:397–403.
    1. Francis N., Wong S.H., Hampson P., Wang K., Young S.P., Deigner H.P., Salmon M., Scheel-Toellner D., Lord J.M. Lactoferrin inhibits neutrophil apoptosis via blockade of proximal apoptotic signaling events. Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA)-Mol.Cell Res. 2011;1813:1822–1826. doi: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2011.07.004.
    1. Wolters M. Diet and psoriasis: Experimental data and clinical evidence. Br. J. Dermatol. 2005;153:706–714. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2005.06781.x.
    1. Smith R.N., Braue A., Varigos G.A., Mann N.J. The effect of a low glycemic load diet on acne vulgaris and the fatty acid composition of skin surface triglycerides. J. Dermatol. Sci. 2008;50:41–52. doi: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2007.11.005.
    1. Downing D.T., Strauss J.S., Pochi P.E. Changes in skin surface lipid composition induced by severe caloric restriction in man. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1972;25:365–367. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/25.4.365.
    1. Pochi P.E., Downing D.T., Strauss J.S. Sebaceous gland response in man to prolonged total caloric deprivation. J. Investig. Dermatol. 1970;55:303–309. doi: 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12260136.
    1. Hijazi M., Kehdy J., Kibbi A.G., Ghosn S. Prurigo pigmentosa: A clinicopathologic study of 4 cases from the middle East. Am. J. Dermatopathol. 2014;36:800–806. doi: 10.1097/DAD.0000000000000182.
    1. Antunes F., Corazzari M., Pereira G., Fimia G.M., Piacentini M., Smaili S. Fasting boosts sensitivity of human skin melanoma to cisplatin-induced cell death. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2017;485:16–22. doi: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2016.09.149.
    1. Moore T., Beltran L., Carbajal S., Hursting S.D., DiGiovanni J. Energy balance modulates mouse skin tumor promotion through altered IGF-1R and EGFR crosstalk. Cancer Prev. Res. 2012;5:1236–1246. doi: 10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-12-0234.
    1. Paschos G.K., FitzGerald G.A. Circadian Clocks and Metabolism: Implications for Microbiome and Aging. Trends Genet. 2017;33:760–769. doi: 10.1016/j.tig.2017.07.010.
    1. Matsui M.S., Pelle E., Dong K., Pernodet N. Biological Rhythms in the Skin. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016;17:801. doi: 10.3390/ijms17060801.
    1. Le Fur I., Reinberg A., Lopez S., Morizot F., Mechkouri M., Tschachler E. Analysis of circadian and ultradian rhythms of skin surface properties of face and forearm of healthy women. J. Investig. Dermatol. 2001;117:718–724. doi: 10.1046/j.0022-202x.2001.01433.x.
    1. Adawi M., Watad A., Brown S., Aazza K., Aazza H., Zouhir M., Sharif K., Ghanayem K., Farah R., Mahagna H., et al. Ramadan fasting exerts immunomodulatory effects: insights from a systematic review. Front. Immunol. 2017;8:1144. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01144.
    1. Yosipovitch G., Xiong G.L., Haus E., Sackett-Lundeen L., Ashkenazi I., Maibach H.I. Time-dependent variations of the skin barrier function in humans: Transepidermal water loss, stratum corneum hydration, skin surface pH, and skin temperature. J. Investig. Dermatol. 1998;110:20–23. doi: 10.1046/j.1523-1747.1998.00069.x.
    1. Yosipovitch G., Sackett-Lundeen L., Goon A., Yiong Huak C., Leok Goh C., Haus E. Circadian and ultradian (12 h) variations of skin blood flow and barrier function in non-irritated and irritated skin-effect of topical corticosteroids. J. Investig. Dermatol. 2004;122:824–829. doi: 10.1111/j.0022-202X.2004.22313.x.
    1. Dimitrov S., Lange T., Nohroudi K., Born J. Number and function of circulating human antigen presenting cells regulated by sleep. Sleep. 2007;30:401–411. doi: 10.1093/sleep/30.4.401.
    1. Chang Y.S., Chiang B.L. Mechanism of sleep disturbance in children with atopic dermatitis and the role of the circadian rhythm and melatonin. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016;17:462. doi: 10.3390/ijms17040462.
    1. Stephenson L.A., Wenger C.B., O’Donovan B.H., Nadel E.R. Circadian rhythm in sweating and cutaneous blood flow. Am. J. Physiol. 1984;246:R321–R324. doi: 10.1152/ajpregu.1984.246.3.R321.
    1. Haeck I.M., Timmer-de Mik L., Lentjes E.G., Buskens E., Hijnen D.J., Guikers C., Bruijnzeel-Koomen C.A., de Bruin-Weller M.S. Low basal serum cortisol in patients with severe atopic dermatitis: Potent topical corticosteroids wrongfully accused. Br. J. Dermatol. 2007;156:979–985. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2007.07753.x.
    1. Matsuda K., Katsunuma T., Iikura Y., Kato H., Saito H., Akasawa A. Adrenocortical function in patients with severe atopic dermatitis. Ann. Allerg. Asthma Immunol. 2000;85:35–39. doi: 10.1016/S1081-1206(10)62431-3.
    1. Mochizuki T., Yamatodani A., Okakura K., Horii A., Inagaki N., Wada H. Circadian rhythm of histamine release from the hypothalamus of freely moving rats. Physiol. Behav. 1992;51:391–394. doi: 10.1016/0031-9384(92)90157-W.
    1. Nakamura Y., Ishimaru K., Shibata S., Nakao A. Regulation of plasma histamine levels by the mast cell clock and its modulation by stress. Sci. Rep. 2017;7:39934. doi: 10.1038/srep39934.
    1. Janich P., Toufighi K., Solanas G., Luis N.M., Minkwitz S., Serrano L., Lehner B., Benitah S.A. Human epidermal stem cell function is regulated by circadian oscillations. Cell Stem. Cell. 2013;13:745–753. doi: 10.1016/j.stem.2013.09.004.
    1. Dridi I., Grissa I., Ezzi L., Chakroun S., Ben-Cherif W., Haouas Z., Aouam K., Ben-Attia M., Reinberg A., Boughattas N.A. Circadian variation of cytotoxicity and genotoxicity induced by an immunosuppressive agent “Mycophenolate Mofetil” in rats. Chronobiol. Int. 2016;33:1208–1221. doi: 10.1080/07420528.2016.1211139.
    1. BaHammam A., Alrajeh M., Albabtain M., Bahammam S., Sharif M. Circadian pattern of sleep, energy expenditure, and body temperature of young healthy men during the intermittent fasting of Ramadan. Appetite. 2010;54:426–429. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2010.01.011.
    1. Patel T., Magdum A., Ghura V. Does fasting during Ramadan affect the use of topical dermatological treatment by Muslim patients in the UK? Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 2012;37:718–721. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2230.2012.04403.x.
    1. Afaq F., Katiyar S.K. Polyphenols: Skin photoprotection and inhibition of photocarcinogenesis. Mini Rev. Med. Chem. 2011;11:1200–1215.

Source: PubMed

Patrocinadores e Colaboradores

Condições médicas

Intervenções de drogas

3
Se inscrever