Fluid Balance in Team Sport Athletes and the Effect of Hypohydration on Cognitive, Technical, and Physical Performance

Ryan P Nuccio, Kelly A Barnes, James M Carter, Lindsay B Baker, Ryan P Nuccio, Kelly A Barnes, James M Carter, Lindsay B Baker

Abstract

Sweat losses in team sports can be significant due to repeated bursts of high-intensity activity, as well as the large body size of athletes, equipment and uniform requirements, and environmental heat stress often present during training and competition. In this paper we aimed to: (1) describe sweat losses and fluid balance changes reported in team sport athletes, (2) review the literature assessing the impact of hypohydration on cognitive, technical, and physical performance in sports-specific studies, (3) briefly review the potential mechanisms by which hypohydration may impact team sport performance, and (4) discuss considerations for future directions. Significant hypohydration (mean body mass loss (BML) >2%) has been reported most consistently in soccer. Although American Football, rugby, basketball, tennis, and ice hockey have reported high sweating rates, fluid balance disturbances have generally been mild (mean BML <2%), suggesting that drinking opportunities were sufficient for most athletes to offset significant fluid losses. The effect of hydration status on team sport performance has been studied mostly in soccer, basketball, cricket, and baseball, with mixed results. Hypohydration typically impaired performance at higher levels of BML (3-4%) and when the method of dehydration involved heat stress. Increased subjective ratings of fatigue and perceived exertion consistently accompanied hypohydration and could explain, in part, the performance impairments reported in some studies. More research is needed to develop valid, reliable, and sensitive sport-specific protocols and should be used in future studies to determine the effects of hypohydration and modifying factors (e.g., age, sex, athlete caliber) on team sport performance.

Keywords: Anaerobic Power; Body Mass Loss; Fluid Restriction; Soccer Player; Team Sport.

Conflict of interest statement

Funding

The preparation of this review was funded by the Gatorade Sports Science Institute, a division of PepsiCo, Inc.

Conflicts of interest

Ryan P. Nuccio, Kelly A. Barnes, James M. Carter, and Lindsay B. Baker are employed by the Gatorade Sports Science Institute, a division of PepsiCo, Inc. The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of PepsiCo, Inc.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Venn diagram showing risk levels for the development of significant hypohydration (>2% body mass loss). The factors shown in this diagram elevate risk of hypohydration by increasing sweat loss (intensity and environment) or limiting fluid replacement. Note that “hot/humid environment” can include wearing protective equipment (which would create a hot/humid microclimate via encapsulation), as well as hot/humid ambient conditions. This diagram applies to the typical duration of team sports practice/competition, which is generally 1–2 h. In instances of shorter or longer duration, risk level may decrease or increase, respectively. Various team sports can be generally classified into low, moderate, and high risk based upon how the structure/rules of the game impact the three risk factors. However, on an individual basis, risk of hypohydration may shift to a lower or higher category depending upon various factors such as drinking behavior (e.g., cultural/social factors), playing position (e.g., soccer goalie vs. midfielder, or baseball catcher vs. outfielder), and playing time (e.g., reserve vs. starter). In addition, for outdoor sports the risk may shift depending upon time of day and season of the year that training/competition takes place (i.e., due to differences in temperature/humidity throughout the day/year)
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Venn diagram showing the likelihood of performance impairment with hypohydration. Based on the studies reviewed, the likelihood of performance impairment seems to increase with higher levels of hypohydration and heat stress. The circle with the dashed line represents other factors that may play a role, but require more research in team sports; these include high aerobic demand, hypohydration at baseline, and individual differences in the response to hypohydration (e.g., low cognitive resiliency). BML body mass loss

References

    1. Gagnon D, Jay O, Kenny GP. The evaporative requirement for heat balance determines whole-body sweat rate during exercise under conditions permitting full evaporation. J Physiol. 2013;591(Pt 11):2925–2935. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2012.248823.
    1. Baker LB, Barnes KA, Anderson ML, et al. Normative data for regional sweat sodium concentration and whole-body sweating rate in athletes. J Sports Sci. 2016;34(4):358–368. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2015.1055291.
    1. Davis JK, Baker LB, Barnes K, et al. Thermoregulation, fluid balance, and sweat losses in American football players. Sports Med. 2016;46(10):1391–1405. doi: 10.1007/s40279-016-0527-8.
    1. Buresh R, Berg K, Noble J. Heat production and storage are positively correlated with measures of body size/composition and heart rate drift during vigorous running. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2005;76(3):267–274. doi: 10.1080/02701367.2005.10599298.
    1. Marino FE, Mbambo Z, Kortekaas E, et al. Advantages of smaller body mass during distance running in warm, humid environments. Pflugers Archiv: Eur J Physiol. 2000;441(2–3):359–367. doi: 10.1007/s004240000432.
    1. Armstrong LE, Johnson EC, Casa DJ, et al. The American football uniform: uncompensable heat stress and hyperthermic exhaustion. J Athl Train. 2010;45(2):117–127. doi: 10.4085/1062-6050-45.2.117.
    1. Mathews DK, Fox EL, Tanzi D. Physiological responses during exercise and recovery in a football uniform. J Appl Physiol. 1969;26(5):611–615.
    1. Baker LB, Barnes KA, Anderson ML, et al. Normative data for regional sweat sodium concentration and whole-body sweating rate in athletes. J Sports Sci. 2015;12:1–11.
    1. Sawka MN, Burke LM, Eichner ER, et al. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Exercise and fluid replacement. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(2):377–390. doi: 10.1249/mss.0b013e31802ca597.
    1. Maughan RJ, Watson P, Shirreffs SM. Implications of active lifestyles and environmental factors for water needs and consequences of failure to meet those needs. Nutr Rev. 2015;73(Suppl 2):130–140. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuv051.
    1. Garth AK, Burke LM. What do athletes drink during competitive sporting activities? Sports Med. 2013;43(7):539–564. doi: 10.1007/s40279-013-0028-y.
    1. Cheuvront SN, Kenefick RW. Dehydration: physiology, assessment, and performance effects. Compr Physiol. 2014;4(1):257–285. doi: 10.1002/cphy.c130017.
    1. Armstrong LE. Assessing hydration status: the elusive gold standard. J Am Coll Nutr. 2007;26(5 Suppl):575S–584S. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2007.10719661.
    1. Maughan RJ, Shirreffs SM, Leiper JB. Errors in the estimation of hydration status from changes in body mass. J Sports Sci. 2007;25(7):797–804. doi: 10.1080/02640410600875143.
    1. Broad EM, Burke LM, Cox GR, et al. Body weight changes and voluntary fluid intakes during training and competition sessions in team sports. Int J Sport Nutr. 1996;6(3):307–320. doi: 10.1123/ijsn.6.3.307.
    1. Mohr M, Nybo L, Grantham J, et al. Physiological responses and physical performance during football in the heat. PLoS One. 2012;7(6):e39202. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0039202.
    1. Perrone C, Sehl PL, Martins JB, et al. Hydration status and sweating responses of boys playing soccer and futsal. Med Sportiva. 2011;15(4):188–193. doi: 10.2478/v10036-011-0023-z.
    1. Aragon-Vargas LF, Moncada-Jimenez J, Hernades-Elizondo J, et al. Evaluation of pre-game hydration status, heat stress, and fluid balance durng professional soccer competition in the heat. Eur J Sport Sci. 2009;9:269–276. doi: 10.1080/17461390902829242.
    1. Da Silva RP, Mundel T, Natali AJ, et al. Pre-game hydration status, sweat loss, and fluid intake in elite Brazilian young male soccer players during competition. J Sports Sci. 2012;30(1):37–42. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2011.623711.
    1. Kurdak SS, Shirreffs SM, Maughan RJ, et al. Hydration and sweating responses to hot-weather football competition. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2010;20(Suppl 3):133–139. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01218.x.
    1. Rico-Sanz J, Frontera WR, Rivera MA, et al. Effects of hyperhydration on total body water, temperature regulation and performance of elite young soccer players in a warm climate. Int J Sports Med. 1996;17(2):85–91. doi: 10.1055/s-2007-972813.
    1. Mustafa KY, Mahmoud NE. Evaporative water loss in African soccer players. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1979;19(2):181–183.
    1. Kilding AE, Tunstall H, Wraith E, et al. Sweat rate and sweat electrolyte composition in international female soccer players during game specific training. Int J Sports Med. 2009;30(6):443–447. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1105945.
    1. Williams CA, Blackwell J. Hydration status, fluid intake, and electrolyte losses in youth soccer players. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2012;7(4):367–374. doi: 10.1123/ijspp.7.4.367.
    1. Guttierres APM, Natali AJ, Vianna JM, et al. Dehydration in soccer players after a match in the heat. Biol Sport. 2011;28:249–254. doi: 10.5604/965483.
    1. Shirreffs SM, Aragon-Vargas LF, Chamorro M, et al. The sweating response of elite professional soccer players to training in the heat. Int J Sports Med. 2005;26(2):90–95. doi: 10.1055/s-2004-821112.
    1. Maughan RJ, Merson SJ, Broad NP, et al. Fluid and electrolyte intake and loss in elite soccer players during training. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2004;14(3):333–346. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.14.3.333.
    1. Gibson JC, Stuart-Hill LA, Pethick W, et al. Hydration status and fluid and sodium balance in elite Canadian junior women’s soccer players in a cool environment. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2012;37(5):931–937. doi: 10.1139/h2012-073.
    1. Phillips SM, Sykes D, Gibson N. Hydration status and fluid balance of elite European youth soccer players during consecutive training sessions. J Sports Sci Med. 2014;13(4):817–822.
    1. Maughan RJ, Watson P, Evans GH, et al. Water balance and salt losses in competitive football. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2007;17(6):583–594. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.17.6.583.
    1. Maughan RJ, Shirreffs SM, Merson SJ, et al. Fluid and electrolyte balance in elite male football (soccer) players training in a cool environment. J Sports Sci. 2005;23(1):73–79. doi: 10.1080/02640410410001730115.
    1. Shirreffs SM, Maughan RJ. Water and salt balance in young male football players in training during the holy month of Ramadan. J Sports Sci. 2008;26(Suppl 3):S47–S54. doi: 10.1080/02640410802428097.
    1. Silva RP, Mundel T, Natali AJ, et al. Fluid balance of elite Brazilian youth soccer players during consecutive days of training. J Sports Sci. 2011;29(7):725–732. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2011.552189.
    1. Duffield R, McCall A, Coutts AJ, et al. Hydration, sweat and thermoregulatory responses to professional football training in the heat. J Sports Sci. 2012;30(10):957–965. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2012.689432.
    1. Chapelle L, Tassignon B, Aerenhouts D, et al. The hydration status of elite youth female soccer players during an official tournament. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2016.
    1. Horswill CA, Stofan JR, Lacambra M, et al. Sodium balance during U. S. football training in the heat: cramp-prone vs. reference players. Int J Sports Med. 2009;30(11):789–794. doi: 10.1055/s-0029-1234056.
    1. Stofan JR, Zachwieja JJ, Horswill CA, et al. Sweat and sodium losses in NCAA football players: a precursor to heat cramps? Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2005;15(6):641–652. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.15.6.641.
    1. Yeargin SW, Casa DJ, Armstrong LE, et al. Heat acclimatization and hydration status of American football players during initial summer workouts. J Strength Cond Res. 2006;20(3):463–470.
    1. Godek SF, Bartolozzi AR, Burkholder R, et al. Core temperature and percentage of dehydration in professional football linemen and backs during preseason practices. J Athl Train. 2006;41(1):8–14.
    1. Godek SF, Bartolozzi AR, Burkholder R, et al. Sweat rates and fluid turnover in professional football players: a comparison of National Football League linemen and backs. J Athl Train. 2008;43(2):184–189. doi: 10.4085/1062-6050-43.2.184.
    1. Godek SF, Bartolozzi AR, Peduzzi C, et al. Fluid consumption and sweating in National Football League and collegiate football players with different access to fluids during practice. J Athl Train. 2010;45(2):128–135. doi: 10.4085/1062-6050-45.2.128.
    1. Godek SF, Peduzzi C, Burkholder R, et al. Sweat rates, sweat sodium concentrations, and sodium losses in 3 groups of professional football players. J Athl Train. 2010;45(4):364–371. doi: 10.4085/1062-6050-45.4.364.
    1. McDermott BP, Casa DJ, Yeargin SW, et al. Hydration status, sweat rates, and rehydration education of youth football campers. J Sport Rehabil. 2009;18(4):535–552. doi: 10.1123/jsr.18.4.535.
    1. Stover EA, Zachwieja J, Stofan J, et al. Consistently high urine specific gravity in adolescent American football players and the impact of an acute drinking strategy. Int J Sports Med. 2006;27(4):330–335. doi: 10.1055/s-2005-865667.
    1. Yeargin SW, Casa DJ, Judelson DA, et al. Thermoregulatory responses and hydration practices in heat-acclimatized adolescents during preseason high school football. J Athl Train. 2010;45(2):136–146. doi: 10.4085/1062-6050-45.2.136.
    1. Godek SF, Bartolozzi AR, Godek JJ. Sweat rate and fluid turnover in American football players compared with runners in a hot and humid environment. Br J Sports Med. 2005;39(4):205–211. doi: 10.1136/bjsm.2004.011767.
    1. Godek SF, Godek JJ, Bartolozzi AR. Hydration status in college football players during consecutive days of twice-a-day preseason practices. Am J Sports Med. 2005;33(6):843–851. doi: 10.1177/0363546504270999.
    1. Stofan JR, Osterberg KL, Horswill CA, et al. Daily fluid turnover during preseason training in U.S. college football. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2007;17(4):340–351. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.17.4.340.
    1. Tippet ML, Stofan JR, Lacambra M, et al. Core temperature and sweat responses in professional women’s tennis players during tournament play in the heat. J Athl Train. 2011;46(1):55–60. doi: 10.4085/1062-6050-46.1.55.
    1. Bergeron MF. Heat cramps during tennis: a case report. Int J Sports Nutr. 1996;6(1):62–68. doi: 10.1123/ijsn.6.1.62.
    1. Bergeron MF. Heat cramps: fluid and electrolyte challenges during tennis in the heat. J Sci Med Sport. 2003;6(1):19–27. doi: 10.1016/S1440-2440(03)80005-1.
    1. Bergeron MF, Maresh CM, Armstrong LE, et al. Fluid-electrolyte balance associated with tennis match play in a hot environment. Int J Sport Nutr. 1995;5(3):180–193. doi: 10.1123/ijsn.5.3.180.
    1. Bergeron MF, Waller JL, Marinik EL. Voluntary fluid intake and core temperature responses in adolescent tennis players: sports beverage versus water. Br J Sports Med. 2006;40(5):406–410. doi: 10.1136/bjsm.2005.023333.
    1. Bergeron MF, McLeod KS, Coyle JF. Core body temperature during competition in the heat: National Boys’ 14 s Junior Championships. Br J Sports Med. 2007;41(11):779–783. doi: 10.1136/bjsm.2007.036905.
    1. Lott MJ, Galloway SD. Fluid balance and sodium losses during indoor tennis match play. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2011;21(6):492–500. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.21.6.492.
    1. Morante SM, Brotherhood JR. Air temperature and physiological and subjective responses during competitive singles tennis. Br J Sports Med. 2007;41(11):773–778. doi: 10.1136/bjsm.2007.036996.
    1. Periard JD, Racinais S, Knez WL, et al. Coping with heat stress during match-play tennis: does an individualised hydration regimen enhance performance and recovery? Br J Sports Med. 2014;48(Suppl 1):i64–i70. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2013-093242.
    1. Hornery DJ, Farrow D, Mujika I, et al. An integrated physiological and performance profile of professional tennis. Br J Sports Med. 2007;41(8):531–536. doi: 10.1136/bjsm.2006.031351.
    1. Osterberg KL, Horswill CA, Baker LB. Pregame urine specific gravity and fluid intake by National Basketball Association players during competition. J Athl Train. 2009;44(1):53–57. doi: 10.4085/1062-6050-44.1.53.
    1. Carvalho P, Oliveira B, Barros R, et al. Impact of fluid restriction and ad libitum water intake or an 8% carbohydrate-electrolyte beverage on skill performance of elite adolescent basketball players. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2011;21(3):214–221. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.21.3.214.
    1. Arnaoutis G, Kavouras SA, Angelopoulou A, et al. Fluid balance during training in elite young athletes of different sports. J Strength Cond Res. 2015;29(12):3447–3452. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000000400.
    1. Thigpen LK, Green JM, O’Neal EK. Hydration profile and sweat loss perception of male and female division II basketball players during practice. J Strength Cond Res. 2014;28(12):3425–3431. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000000549.
    1. Brandenburg JP, Gaetz M. Fluid balance of elite female basketball players before and during game play. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2012;22(5):347–352. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.22.5.347.
    1. Vukašinović-Vesić M, Andjelković M, Stojmenović T, et al. Sweat rate and fluid intake in young elite basketball players on the FIBA Europe U20 Championship. Vojnosanit Pregl. 2015;72(12):1063–1068. doi: 10.2298/VSP140408073V.
    1. Afman G, Garside RM, Dinan N, et al. Effect of carbohydrate or sodium bicarbonate ingestion on performance during a validated basketball simulation test. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2014;24(6):632–644. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.2013-0168.
    1. Armstrong LE, Casa DJ. Methods to evaluate electrolyte and water turnover of athletes. Athl Train Sports Health Care. 2009;1(4):169–179.
    1. Goodman C, Cohen I, Walton J. The effect of water intake on body temperature during rugby matches. S Afr Med J. 1985;67(14):542–544.
    1. Cohen I, Mitchell D, Seider R, et al. The effect of water deficit on body temperature during rugby. S Afr Med J. 1981;60(1):11–14.
    1. Meir RA, Halliday AJ. Pre- and post-game body mass changes during an international rugby tournament: a practical perspective. J Strength Cond Res. 2005;19(3):713–716.
    1. O’Hara JP, Jones BL, Tsakirides C, et al. Hydration status of rugby league players during home match play throughout the 2008 Super League season. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2010;35(6):790–796. doi: 10.1139/H10-077.
    1. Meir R, Brooks L, Shield T. Body weight and tympanic temperature change in professional rugby league players during night and day games: a study in the field. J Strength Cond Res. 2003;17(3):566–572.
    1. Jones BL, O’Hara JP, Till K, et al. Dehydration and hyponatremia in professional rugby union players: a cohort study observing english premiership rugby union players during match play, field, and gym training in cool environmental conditions. J Strength Cond Res. 2015;29(1):107–115. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000000620.
    1. Cosgrove SD, Love TD, Brown RC, et al. Fluid and electrolyte balance during two different preseason training sessions in elite rugby union players. J Strength Cond Res. 2014;28(2):520–527. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3182986d43.
    1. Palmer MS, Logan HM, Spriet LL. On-ice sweat rate, voluntary fluid intake, and sodium balance during practice in male junior ice hockey players drinking water or a carbohydrate-electrolyte solution. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2010;35(3):328–335. doi: 10.1139/H10-027.
    1. Palmer MS, Spriet LL. Sweat rate, salt loss, and fluid intake during an intense on-ice practice in elite Canadian male junior hockey players. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2008;33(2):263–271. doi: 10.1139/H08-011.
    1. Logan-Sprenger HM, Palmer MS, Spriet LL. Estimated fluid and sodium balance and drink preferences in elite male junior players during an ice hockey game. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2011;36(1):145–152. doi: 10.1139/H10-098.
    1. Batchelder BC, Krause BA, Seegmiller JG, et al. Gastrointestinal temperature increases and hypohydration exists after collegiate men’s ice hockey participation. J Strength Cond Res. 2010;24(1):68–73. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181c49114.
    1. Linseman ME, Palmer MS, Sprenger HM, et al. Maintaining hydration with a carbohydrate-electrolyte solution improves performance, thermoregulation, and fatigue during an ice hockey scrimmage. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2014;39(11):1214–1221. doi: 10.1139/apnm-2014-0091.
    1. Pohl AP, O’Halloran MW, Pannall PR. Biochemical and physiological changes in football players. Med J Aust. 1981;1(9):467–470.
    1. Pyke FS, Hahn AG. Body temperature regulation in summer football. Sports Coach. 1980;4:41–43.
    1. Gore CJ, Bourdon PC, Woolford SM, et al. Involuntary dehydration during cricket. Int J Sports Med. 1993;14(7):387–395. doi: 10.1055/s-2007-1021197.
    1. Soo K, Naughton G. The hydration profile of female cricket players during competition. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2007;17(1):14–26. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.17.1.14.
    1. Gamage JP, De Silva AP, Nalliah AK, et al. Effects of dehydration on cricket specific skill performance in hot and humid conditions. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2016;26(6):531–541. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.2016-0015.
    1. Yoshida T, Nakai S, Yorimoto A, et al. Effect of aerobic capacity on sweat rate and fluid intake during outdoor exercise in the heat. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1995;71(2–3):235–239. doi: 10.1007/BF00854984.
    1. Yoshida T, Takanishi T, Nakai S, et al. The critical level of water deficit causing a decrease in human exercise performance: a practical field study. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2002;87(6):529–534. doi: 10.1007/s00421-002-0651-z.
    1. Newell M, Newell J, Grant S. Fluid and electrolyte balance in elite gaelic football players. Ir Med J. 2008;101(8):236–239.
    1. Zetou E, Giatsis G, Mountaki F, et al. Body weight changes and voluntary fluid intakes of beach volleyball players during an official tournament. J Sci Med Sport. 2008;11(2):139–145. doi: 10.1016/j.jsams.2007.01.005.
    1. Cleary MA, Hetzler RK, Wasson D, et al. Hydration behaviors before and after an educational and prescribed hydration intervention in adolescent athletes. J Athl Train. 2012;47(3):273–281. doi: 10.4085/1062-6050-47.3.05.
    1. MacLeod H, Sunderland C. Fluid balance and hydration habits of elite female field hockey players during consecutive international matches. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(4):1245–1251. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e318192b77a.
    1. Abian-Vicen J, Del Coso J, Gonzalez-Millan C, et al. Analysis of dehydration and strength in elite badminton players. PLoS One. 2012;7(5):e37821. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0037821.
    1. Cox GR, Broad EM, Riley MD, et al. Body mass changes and voluntary fluid intakes of elite level water polo players and swimmers. J Sci Med Sport. 2002;5(3):183–193. doi: 10.1016/S1440-2440(02)80003-2.
    1. FIFA. . Accessed 4 Apr 2017.
    1. Bandelow S, Maughan R, Shirreffs S, et al. The effects of exercise, heat, cooling and rehydration strategies on cognitive function in football players. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2010;20(Suppl 3):148–160. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01220.x.
    1. Edwards AM, Mann ME, Marfell-Jones MJ, et al. Influence of moderate dehydration on soccer performance: physiological responses to 45 min of outdoor match-play and the immediate subsequent performance of sport-specific and mental concentration tests. Br J Sports Med. 2007;41(6):385–391. doi: 10.1136/bjsm.2006.033860.
    1. McGregor SJ, Nicholas CW, Lakomy HK, et al. The influence of intermittent high-intensity shuttle running and fluid ingestion on the performance of a soccer skill. J Sports Sci. 1999;17(11):895–903. doi: 10.1080/026404199365452.
    1. Hoffman JR, Williams DR, Emerson NS, et al. L-alanyl-l-glutamine ingestion maintains performance during a competitive basketball game. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2012;9(1):4. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-9-4.
    1. Baker LB, Conroy DE, Kenney WL. Dehydration impairs vigilance-related attention in male basketball players. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(6):976–983. doi: 10.1097/mss.0b013e3180471ff2.
    1. MacLeod H, Sunderland C. Previous-day hypohydration impairs skill performance in elite female field hockey players. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2012;22(3):430–438. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01230.x.
    1. Sunderland C, Cooke K, Milne H, et al. The reliability and validity of a field hockey skill test. Int J Sports Med. 2006;27(5):395–400. doi: 10.1055/s-2005-865748.
    1. D’Anci KE, Vibhakar A, Kanter JH, et al. Voluntary dehydration and cognitive performance in trained college athletes. Percept Mot Skills. 2009;109(1):251–269. doi: 10.2466/pms.109.1.251-269.
    1. Hoffman JR, Stavsky H, Falk B. The effect of water restriction on anaerobic power and vertical jumping height in basketball players. Int J Sports Med. 1995;16(4):214–218. doi: 10.1055/s-2007-972994.
    1. Baker LB, Dougherty KA, Chow M, et al. Progressive dehydration causes a progressive decline in basketball skill performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(7):1114–1123. doi: 10.1249/mss.0b013e3180574b02.
    1. Dougherty KA, Baker LB, Chow M, et al. Two percent dehydration impairs and six percent carbohydrate drink improves boys basketball skills. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006;38(9):1650–1658. doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000227640.60736.8e.
    1. Mikolajec K, Maszczyk A, Zajac T. Game indicators determining sports performance in the NBA. J Hum Kinet. 2013;37:145–151. doi: 10.2478/hukin-2013-0035.
    1. Owen JA, Kehoe SJ, Oliver SJ. Influence of fluid intake on soccer performance in a temperate environment. J Sports Sci. 2013;31(1):1–10. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2012.720701.
    1. Ali A, Gardiner R, Foskett A, et al. Fluid balance, thermoregulation and sprint and passing skill performance in female soccer players. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2011;21(3):437–445. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.01055.x.
    1. Nicholas CW, Nuttall FE, Williams C. The Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test: a field test that simulates the activity pattern of soccer. J Sports Sci. 2000;18(2):97–104. doi: 10.1080/026404100365162.
    1. Ali A, Williams C, Hulse M, et al. Reliability and validity of two tests of soccer skill. J Sports Sci. 2007;25(13):1461–1470. doi: 10.1080/02640410601150470.
    1. Devlin LH, Fraser SF, Barras NS, et al. Moderate levels of hypohydration impairs bowling accuracy but not bowling velocity in skilled cricket players. J Sci Med Sport. 2001;4(2):179–187. doi: 10.1016/S1440-2440(01)80028-1.
    1. Portus M, Timms S, Spratford W, et al. The utility of a bowling skills test to assist developing fast bowlers. In: Portus M, et al., editors. Conference proceedings from Conference of science, medicine, and coaching. Brisbane: Cricket Australia; 2010. pp. 137–140.
    1. Freeston J, Ferdinands R, Rooney K. Throwing velocity and accuracy in elite and sub-elite cricket players: a descriptive study. Eur J Sport Sci. 2007;7(4):231–237. doi: 10.1080/17461390701733793.
    1. Burke ER, Ekblom B. Influence of fluid ingestion and dehydration on precision and endurance performance in tennis. Curr Top Sports Med. 1984:379–88.
    1. Ali A, Williams C. Isokinetic and isometric muscle function of the knee extensors and flexors during simulated soccer activity: effect of exercise and dehydration. J Sports Sci. 2013;31(8):907–916. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2012.753635.
    1. Davis JK, Laurent CM, Allen KE, et al. Influence of dehydration on intermittent sprint performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2015;29(9):2586–2593. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000000907.
    1. Laurent CM, Green JM, Bishop PA, et al. A practical approach to monitoring recovery: development of a perceived recovery status scale. J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25(3):620–628. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181c69ec6.
    1. Bosco C, Luhtanen P, Komi PV. A simple method for measurement of mechanical power in jumping. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1983;50(2):273–282. doi: 10.1007/BF00422166.
    1. Savoie FA, Kenefick RW, Ely BR, et al. Effect of hypohydration on muscle endurance, strength, anaerobic power and capacity and vertical jumping ability: a meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2015;45(8):1207–1227. doi: 10.1007/s40279-015-0349-0.
    1. Cheuvront SN, Kenefick RW, Ely BR, et al. Hypohydration reduces vertical ground reaction impulse but not jump height. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2010;109(6):1163–1170. doi: 10.1007/s00421-010-1458-y.
    1. Krustrup P, Mohr M, Amstrup T, et al. The yo-yo intermittent recovery test: physiological response, reliability, and validity. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003;35(4):697–705. doi: 10.1249/01.MSS.0000058441.94520.32.
    1. Krustrup P, Mohr M, Nybo L, et al. The Yo-Yo IR2 test: physiological response, reliability, and application to elite soccer. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006;38(9):1666–1673. doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000227538.20799.08.
    1. Leger LA, Lambert J. A maximal multistage 20-m shuttle run test to predict VO2 max. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1982;49(1):1–12. doi: 10.1007/BF00428958.
    1. Kozlowski S, Saltin B. Effect of sweat loss on body fluids. J Appl Physiol. 1964;19:1119–1124.
    1. Gonzalez-Alonso J, Mora-Rodriguez R, Below PR, et al. Dehydration reduces cardiac output and increases systemic and cutaneous vascular resistance during exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1995;79(5):1487–1496.
    1. Saltin B. Circulatory response to submaximal and maximal exercise after thermal dehydration. J Appl Physiol. 1964;19:1125–1132.
    1. Montain SJ, Coyle EF. Influence of graded dehydration on hyperthermia and cardiovascular drift during exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1992;73(4):1340–1350.
    1. Montain SJ, Latzka WA, Sawka MN. Control of thermoregulatory sweating is altered by hydration level and exercise intensity. J Appl Physiol. 1995;79(5):1434–1439.
    1. Fortney SM, Nadel ER, Wenger CB, et al. Effect of blood volume on sweating rate and body fluids in exercising humans. J Appl Physiol. 1981;51(6):1594–1600.
    1. Fortney SM, Wenger CB, Bove JR, et al. Effect of hyperosmolality on control of blood flow and sweating. J Appl Physiol. 1984;57(6):1688–1695.
    1. Sawka MN, Young AJ, Francesconi RP, et al. Thermoregulatory and blood responses during exercise at graded hypohydration levels. J Appl Physiol. 1985;59(5):1394–1401.
    1. Sawka MN, Cheuvront SN, Kenefick RW. Hypohydration and human performance: impact of environment and physiological mechanisms. Sports Med. 2015;45(Suppl 1):S51–S60. doi: 10.1007/s40279-015-0395-7.
    1. Sawka MN, Leon LR, Montain SJ, et al. Integrated physiological mechanisms of exercise performance, adaptation, and maladaptation to heat stress. Compr Physiol. 2011;1(4):1883–1928. doi: 10.1002/cphy.c100082.
    1. Cheuvront SN, Kenefick RW, Montain SJ, et al. Mechanisms of aerobic performance impairment with heat stress and dehydration. J Appl Physiol. 2010;109(6):1989–1995. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00367.2010.
    1. Patel AV, Mihalik JP, Notebaert AJ, et al. Neuropsychological performance, postural stability, and symptoms after dehydration. J Athl Train. 2007;42(1):66–75.
    1. Ganio MS, Armstrong LE, Casa DJ, et al. Mild dehydration impairs cognitive performance and mood of men. Br J Nutr. 2011;106(10):1535–1543. doi: 10.1017/S0007114511002005.
    1. Cian C, Koulmann N, Barraud PA, et al. Influence of variations in body hydration on cognitive function: effect of hyperhydration, heat stress, and exercise-induced dehydration. J Psychophysiol. 2000;14:29–36. doi: 10.1027//0269-8803.14.1.29.
    1. Cian C, Barraud PA, Melin B, et al. Effects of fluid ingestion on cognitive function after heat stress or exercise-induced dehydration. Int J Psychophysiol. 2001;42(3):243–251. doi: 10.1016/S0167-8760(01)00142-8.
    1. Petri NM, Dropulic N, Kardum G. Effects of voluntary fluid intake deprivation on mental and psychomotor performance. Croat Med J. 2006;47(6):855–861.
    1. Shirreffs SM, Merson SJ, Fraser SM, et al. The effects of fluid restriction on hydration status and subjective feelings in man. Br J Nutr. 2004;91(6):951–958. doi: 10.1079/BJN20041149.
    1. Gopinathan PM, Pichan G, Sharma VM. Role of dehydration in heat stress-induced variations in mental performance. Arch Environ Health. 1988;43(1):15–17. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1988.9934367.
    1. Lindseth PD, Lindseth GN, Petros TV, et al. Effects of hydration on cognitive function of pilots. Mil Med. 2013;178(7):792–798. doi: 10.7205/MILMED-D-13-00013.
    1. Ely BR, Sollanek KJ, Cheuvront SN, et al. Hypohydration and acute thermal stress affect mood state but not cognition or dynamic postural balance. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2013;113(4):1027–1034. doi: 10.1007/s00421-012-2506-6.
    1. Adam GE, Carter R, 3rd, Cheuvront SN, et al. Hydration effects on cognitive performance during military tasks in temperate and cold environments. Physiol Behav. 2008;93(4–5):748–756. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.11.028.
    1. Armstrong LE, Ganio MS, Casa DJ, et al. Mild dehydration affects mood in healthy young women. J Nutr. 2012;142(2):382–388. doi: 10.3945/jn.111.142000.
    1. Grego F, Vallier JM, Collardeau M, et al. Influence of exercise duration and hydration status on cognitive function during prolonged cycling exercise. Int J Sports Med. 2005;26(1):27–33. doi: 10.1055/s-2004-817915.
    1. Szinnai G, Schachinger H, Arnaud MJ, et al. Effect of water deprivation on cognitive-motor performance in healthy men and women. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2005;289(1):R275–R280. doi: 10.1152/ajpregu.00501.2004.
    1. Serwah N, Marino FE. The combined effects of hydration and exercise heat stress on choice reaction time. J Sci Med Sport. 2006;9:157–164. doi: 10.1016/j.jsams.2006.03.006.
    1. Kempton MJ, Ettinger U, Foster R, et al. Dehydration affects brain structure and function in healthy adolescents. Hum Brain Mapp. 2011;32(1):71–79. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20999.
    1. Watson P, Head K, Pitiot A, et al. Effect of exercise and heat-induced hypohydration on brain volume. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010;42(12):2197–2204. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181e39788.
    1. Kempton MJ, Ettinger U, Schmechtig A, et al. Effects of acute dehydration on brain morphology in healthy humans. Hum Brain Mapp. 2009;30(1):291–298. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20500.
    1. Carter R, 3rd, Cheuvront SN, Vernieuw CR, et al. Hypohydration and prior heat stress exacerbates decreases in cerebral blood flow velocity during standing. J Appl Physiol. 2006;101(6):1744–1750. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00200.2006.
    1. Romero SA, Moralez G, Rickards CA, et al. Control of cerebral blood velocity with furosemide-induced hypovolemia and upright tilt. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2011;110(2):492–498. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01060.2010.
    1. Streitburger DP, Moller HE, Tittgemeyer M, et al. Investigating structural brain changes of dehydration using voxel-based morphometry. PLoS One. 2012;7(8):e44195. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0044195.
    1. Castellani JW, Muza SR, Cheuvront SN, et al. Effect of hypohydration and altitude exposure on aerobic exercise performance and acute mountain sickness. J Appl Physiol. 2010;109(6):1792–1800. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00517.2010.
    1. Buskirk ER, Iampietro PF, Bass DE. Work performance after dehydration: effects of physical conditioning and heat acclimatization. J Appl Physiol. 1958;12(2):189–194.
    1. Nybo L, Jensen T, Nielsen B, et al. Effects of marked hyperthermia with and without dehydration on VO(2) kinetics during intense exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2001;90(3):1057–1064.
    1. Caldwell JE, Ahonen E, Nousiainen U. Differential effects of sauna-, diuretic-, and exercise-induced hypohydration. J Appl Physiol. 1984;57(4):1018–1023.
    1. Ganio MS, Wingo JE, Carrolll CE, et al. Fluid ingestion attenuates the decline in VO2peak associated with cardiovascular drift. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006;38(5):901–909. doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000218127.14107.08.
    1. Montain SJ, Smith SA, Mattot RP, et al. Hypohydration effects on skeletal muscle performance and metabolism: a 31P-MRS study. J Appl Physiol. 1998;84(6):1889–1894.
    1. Gonzalez-Alonso J, Calbet JA, Nielsen B. Muscle blood flow is reduced with dehydration during prolonged exercise in humans. J Physiol. 1998;513(Pt 3):895–905. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7793.1998.895ba.x.
    1. Gonzalez-Alonso J, Calbet JA, Nielsen B. Metabolic and thermodynamic responses to dehydration-induced reductions in muscle blood flow in exercising humans. J Physiol. 1999;15(520 Pt 2):577–589. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7793.1999.00577.x.
    1. Hargreaves M, Dillo P, Angus D, et al. Effect of fluid ingestion on muscle metabolism during prolonged exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1996;80(1):363–366.
    1. Logan-Sprenger HM, Heigenhauser GJ, Jones GL, et al. Progressive dehydration during cycling increases skeletal muscle glycogenolysis and perceived exertion in hydrated males. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2012;23(3):220–229. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.23.3.220.
    1. Logan-Sprenger HM, Heigenhauser GJ, Killian KJ, et al. Effects of dehydration during cycling on skeletal muscle metabolism in females. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012;44(10):1949–1957. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e31825abc7c.
    1. Drust B, Rasmussen P, Mohr M, et al. Elevations in core and muscle temperature impairs repeated sprint performance. Acta Physiol Scand. 2005;183(2):181–190. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-201X.2004.01390.x.
    1. Nybo L, Rasmussen P, Sawka MN. Performance in the heat-physiological factors of importance for hyperthermia-induced fatigue. Compr Physiol. 2014;4(2):657–689. doi: 10.1002/cphy.c130012.
    1. Nybo L, Nielsen B. Hyperthermia and central fatigue during prolonged exercise in humans. J Appl Physiol. 2001;91(3):1055–1060.
    1. Thomas MM, Cheung SS, Elder GC, et al. Voluntary muscle activation is impaired by core temperature rather than local muscle temperature. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2006;100(4):1361–1369. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00945.2005.
    1. Bennett AF. Thermal dependence of muscle function. Am J Physiol. 1984;247(2 Pt 2):R217–R229.
    1. Mohr M, Krustrup P, Nybo L, et al. Muscle temperature and sprint performance during soccer matches–beneficial effect of re-warm-up at half-time. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2004;14(3):156–162. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2004.00349.x.
    1. Racinais S, Blonc S, Jonville S, et al. Time of day influences the environmental effects on muscle force and contractility. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005;37(2):256–261. doi: 10.1249/01.MSS.0000149885.82163.9F.
    1. Racinais S, Hue O, Blonc S. Time-of-day effects on anaerobic muscular power in a moderately warm environment. Chronobiol Int. 2004;21(3):485–495. doi: 10.1081/CBI-120038632.
    1. Fleming J, James LJ. Repeated familiarisation with hypohydration attenuates the performance decrement caused by hypohydration during treadmill running. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2014;39(2):124–129. doi: 10.1139/apnm-2013-0044.
    1. Derave W, De Clercq D, Bouckaert J, et al. The influence of exercise and dehydration on postural stability. Ergonomics. 1998;41(6):782–789. doi: 10.1080/001401398186630.
    1. Gauchard GC, Gangloff P, Vouriot A, et al. Effects of exercise-induced fatigue with and without hydration on static postural control in adult human subjects. Int J Neurosci. 2002;112(10):1191–1206. doi: 10.1080/00207450290026157.
    1. Distefano LJ, Casa DJ, Vansumeren MM, et al. Hypohydration and hyperthermia impair neuromuscular control after exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013;45(6):1166–1173. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3182805b83.
    1. Erkmen N, Taskin H, Kaplan T, et al. Balance performance and recovery after exercise with water intake, sport drink intake, and no fluid. J Exer Sci Fit. 2010;8:105–112. doi: 10.1016/S1728-869X(10)60016-0.
    1. Seay JF, Ely BR, Kenefick RW, et al. Hypohydration does not alter standing balance. Mot Control. 2013;17(2):190–202. doi: 10.1123/mcj.17.2.190.
    1. Racinais S, Alonso JM, Coutts AJ, et al. Consensus recommendations on training and competing in the heat. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2015;25(Suppl 1):6–19. doi: 10.1111/sms.12467.
    1. Gonzalez-Alonso J. Hyperthermia impairs brain, heart and muscle function in exercising humans. Sports Med. 2007;37(4–5):371–373. doi: 10.2165/00007256-200737040-00025.
    1. Nybo L, Nielsen B. Perceived exertion is associated with an altered brain activity during exercise with progressive hyperthermia. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2001;91(5):2017–2023.
    1. Nybo L. Hyperthermia and fatigue. J Appl Physiol. 2008;104(3):871–878. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00910.2007.
    1. Lieberman HR. Methods for assessing the effects of dehydration on cognitive function. Nutr Rev. 2012;70(Suppl 2):S143–S146. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2012.00524.x.
    1. Currell K, Jeukendrup AE. Validity, reliability and sensitivity of measures of sporting performance. Sports Med. 2008;38(4):297–316. doi: 10.2165/00007256-200838040-00003.

Source: PubMed

Patrocinadores e Colaboradores

Condições médicas

Intervenções de drogas

3
Se inscrever