Best practice for motor imagery: a systematic literature review on motor imagery training elements in five different disciplines

Corina Schuster, Roger Hilfiker, Oliver Amft, Anne Scheidhauer, Brian Andrews, Jenny Butler, Udo Kischka, Thierry Ettlin, Corina Schuster, Roger Hilfiker, Oliver Amft, Anne Scheidhauer, Brian Andrews, Jenny Butler, Udo Kischka, Thierry Ettlin

Abstract

Background: The literature suggests a beneficial effect of motor imagery (MI) if combined with physical practice, but detailed descriptions of MI training session (MITS) elements and temporal parameters are lacking. The aim of this review was to identify the characteristics of a successful MITS and compare these for different disciplines, MI session types, task focus, age, gender and MI modification during intervention.

Methods: An extended systematic literature search using 24 databases was performed for five disciplines: Education, Medicine, Music, Psychology and Sports. References that described an MI intervention that focused on motor skills, performance or strength improvement were included. Information describing 17 MITS elements was extracted based on the PETTLEP (physical, environment, timing, task, learning, emotion, perspective) approach. Seven elements describing the MITS temporal parameters were calculated: study duration, intervention duration, MITS duration, total MITS count, MITS per week, MI trials per MITS and total MI training time.

Results: Both independent reviewers found 96% congruity, which was tested on a random sample of 20% of all references. After selection, 133 studies reporting 141 MI interventions were included. The locations of the MITS and position of the participants during MI were task-specific. Participants received acoustic detailed MI instructions, which were mostly standardised and live. During MI practice, participants kept their eyes closed. MI training was performed from an internal perspective with a kinaesthetic mode. Changes in MI content, duration and dosage were reported in 31 MI interventions. Familiarisation sessions before the start of the MI intervention were mentioned in 17 reports. MI interventions focused with decreasing relevance on motor-, cognitive- and strength-focused tasks. Average study intervention lasted 34 days, with participants practicing MI on average three times per week for 17 minutes, with 34 MI trials. Average total MI time was 178 minutes including 13 MITS. Reporting rate varied between 25.5% and 95.5%.

Conclusions: MITS elements of successful interventions were individual, supervised and non-directed sessions, added after physical practice. Successful design characteristics were dominant in the Psychology literature, in interventions focusing on motor and strength-related tasks, in interventions with participants aged 20 to 29 years old, and in MI interventions including participants of both genders. Systematic searching of the MI literature was constrained by the lack of a defined MeSH term.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
The literature selection process. Numbers in brackets indicate references retrieved from the search in June 2010. MI = motor imagery; MP = mental practice.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Overview of extracted and calculated temporal parameters. MI = motor imagery; MITS = motor imagery training session; total MI time: = (total MITS count) × (MITS duration).
Figure 3
Figure 3
Comparison of motor imagery (MI) interventions with positive results versus no change or negative results. The figure shows the frequencies of motor imagery training session (MITS) elements and temporal parameter statistics for this analysis. Categories of MITS elements added up to 100% if an element was reported for all interventions considered in this analysis. For temporal parameters, bars show mean and positive SD. ♦ = Indicate changing trend of MITS element frequencies (see main text for detailed description); ο, Δ, ∇ = indicate significant results of the statistical tests against the average positive MI intervention.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Comparison of average positive motor imagery (MI) intervention versus discipline-specific MI interventions in Education. The figure shows the frequencies of motor imagery training session (MITS) and temporal parameter statistics for successful interventions. Categories of MITS elements added up to 100% if an element was reported for all interventions considered in this analysis.. For temporal parameters, bars show mean and positive SD. ♦ = Indicate changing trend of MITS element frequencies (see main text for detailed description); ο, Δ, ∇ = indicate significant results of the statistical tests against the average positive MI intervention.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Comparison of average positive motor imagery (MI) intervention versus discipline-specific MI interventions in Medicine. The figure shows the frequencies of motor imagery training session (MITS) and temporal parameter statistics for successful interventions. Categories of MITS elements add to 100%, if an element was reported for all interventions considered in this analysis. For temporal parameters, bars show mean and positive standard deviation (SD). ♦ = Indicate changing trend of MITS element frequencies (see main text for detailed description); ο, Δ, ∇ = indicate significant results of the statistical tests against the average positive MI intervention.
Figure 6
Figure 6
Comparison of average positive motor imagery (MI) intervention versus discipline-specific MI interventions in Music. The figure shows the frequencies of motor imagery training session (MITS) and temporal parameter statistics for successful interventions. Categories of MITS elements add to 100%, if an element was reported for all interventions considered in this analysis. For temporal parameters, bars show mean and positive standard deviation (SD).♦ = Indicate changing trend of MITS element frequencies (see main text for detailed description); ο, Δ, ∇ = indicate significant results of the statistical tests against the average positive MI intervention.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Comparison of average positive motor imagery (MI) intervention versus discipline-specific MI interventions in Psychology. The figure shows the frequencies of motor imagery training session (MITS) and temporal parameter statistics for successful interventions. Categories of MITS elements add to 100%, if an element was reported for all interventions considered in this analysis. For temporal parameters, bars show mean and positive standard deviation (SD).♦ = Indicate changing trend of MITS element frequencies (see main text for detailed description); ο, Δ, ∇ = indicate significant results of the statistical tests against the average positive MI intervention.
Figure 8
Figure 8
Comparison of average positive motor imagery (MI) intervention versus discipline-specific MI interventions in Sports. The figure shows the frequencies of motor imagery training session (MITS) and temporal parameter statistics for successful interventions. Categories of MITS elements add to 100%, if an element was reported for all interventions considered in this analysis. For temporal parameters, bars show mean and positive standard deviation (SD).♦ = Indicate changing trend of MITS element frequencies (see main text for detailed description); ο, Δ, ∇ = indicate significant results of the statistical tests against the average positive MI intervention.
Figure 9
Figure 9
Comparison of average positive motor imagery (MI) intervention versus MI integration approaches. The figure shows the frequencies of motor imagery training session (MITS) and temporal parameter statistics for successful interventions. Categories of MITS elements add to 100%, if an element was reported for all interventions considered in this analysis. For temporal parameters, bars show mean and positive standard deviation (SD). ♦ = Indicate changing trend of MITS element frequencies (see main text for detailed description); ο, Δ, ∇ = indicate significant results of the statistical tests against the average positive MI intervention.
Figure 10
Figure 10
Comparison of motor imagery (MI) interventions with different MI focus. The figure shows the frequencies of motor imagery training session (MITS) and temporal parameter statistics for successful interventions. Categories of MITS elements add to 100%, if an element was reported for all interventions considered in this analysis. For temporal parameters, bars show mean and positive standard deviation (SD). The average positive MI intervention mirrored the frequency analysis of interventions with motor-related focus and is thus not shown.♦ = Indicate changing trend of MITS element frequencies (see main text for detailed description); ο, Δ, ∇ = indicate significant results of the statistical tests against the average positive MI intervention.
Figure 11
Figure 11
Comparison of average positive motor imagery (MI) intervention versus different MI session types. The figure shows the frequencies of motor imagery training session (MITS) and temporal parameter statistics for successful interventions. Categories of MITS elements add to 100%, if an element was reported for all interventions considered in this analysis. For temporal parameters, bars show mean and positive standard deviation (SD). ♦ = Indicate changing trend of MITS element frequencies (see main text for detailed description); ο, Δ, ∇ = indicate significant results of the statistical tests against the average positive MI intervention.
Figure 12
Figure 12
Comparison of average positive motor imagery (MI) intervention versus different age groups (1). The figure shows the frequencies of motor imagery training session (MITS) and temporal parameter statistics for successful interventions. Categories of MITS elements add to 100%, if an element was reported for all interventions considered in this analysis. For temporal parameters, bars show mean and positive standard deviation (SD).♦ = Indicate changing trend of MITS element frequencies (see main text for detailed description); ο, Δ, ∇ = indicate significant results of the statistical tests against the average positive MI intervention.
Figure 13
Figure 13
Comparison of average positive motor imagery (MI) intervention versus different age groups (2). The figure shows the frequencies of motor imagery training session (MITS) and temporal parameter statistics for successful interventions. Categories of MITS elements add to 100%, if an element was reported for all interventions considered in this analysis. For temporal parameters, bars show mean and positive standard deviation (SD). ♦ = Indicate changing trend of MITS element frequencies (see main text for detailed description); ο, Δ, ∇ = indicate significant results of the statistical tests against the average positive MI intervention.
Figure 14
Figure 14
Comparison of motor imagery (MI) interventions with regard to gender. The figure shows the frequencies of motor imagery training session (MITS) and temporal parameter statistics for successful interventions. Categories of MITS elements add to 100%, if an element was reported for all interventions considered in this analysis. For temporal parameters, bars show mean and positive standard deviation (SD). The average positive MI intervention mirrored the frequency analysis of interventions with both genders and is thus not shown. ♦ = Indicate changing trend of MITS element frequencies (see main text for detailed description); ο, Δ, ∇ = indicate significant results of the statistical tests against the average positive MI intervention.
Figure 15
Figure 15
Comparison of average positive motor imagery (MI) intervention versus intervention modifications (content, duration, dosage). The figure shows the frequencies of motor imagery training session (MITS) and temporal parameter statistics for successful interventions. Categories of MITS elements add to 100%, if an element was reported for all interventions considered in this analysis. For temporal parameters, bars show mean and positive standard deviation (SD). ♦ = Indicate changing trend of MITS element frequencies (see main text for detailed description); ο, Δ, ∇ = indicate significant results of the statistical tests against the average positive MI intervention.

References

    1. Feltz DL, Landers DM. The effects of mental practice on motor skill learning and performance: a meta-analysis. J Sport Exerc Psych. 1983;5:25–57.
    1. Feltz D, Landers DM, Becker BJ. In: Enhancing Human Performance: Issues, theories, and techniques. Druckmann D, Swets JA, editor. Washington D.C. National Academy Press; 1988. A revised meta-analysis of the mental practice literature on motor skill learning; pp. 61–101.
    1. Fell NT. Mental rehearsal as a complementary treatment in geriatric rehabilitation. Phys Occup Ther Geriatr. 2001;18(4):51–63.
    1. Batson G. Motor imagery for stroke rehabilitation: current research as a guide to clinical practice. Alternative & Complementary Therapies. 2004;10(2):84–89. doi: 10.1089/107628004773933325.
    1. Braun SM, Beurskens AJ, Borm PJ, Schack T, Wade DT. The effects of mental practice in stroke rehabilitation: a systematic review. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2006;87(6):842–852. doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2006.02.034.
    1. Feltz DL, Landers DM, Becker BJ. A Revised Meta-analysis of the Mental Practice Literature on Motor Skill Learning. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1988.
    1. Hall JC. Imagery practice and the development of surgical skills. Am J Surg. 2002;184(5):465. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9610(02)01007-3.
    1. Mulder T. Motor imagery and action observation: cognitive tools for rehabilitation. J Neural Transm. 2007;114(10):1265–1278. doi: 10.1007/s00702-007-0763-z.
    1. Sharma N, Pomeroy VM, Baron JC. Motor imagery - A backdoor to the motor system after stroke? Stroke. 2006;37(7):1941–1952. doi: 10.1161/01.STR.0000226902.43357.fc.
    1. Warner L, McNeill ME. Mental imagery and its potential for physical therapy. Phys Ther. 1988;68(4):516–521.
    1. Zimmermann-Schlatter A, Schuster C, Puhan M, Siekierka E, Steurer J. Efficacy of motor imagery in post-stroke rehabilitation: a systematic review. J NeuroEng Rehabil. 2008;5(8)
    1. Annett J. Motor imagery: perception or action? Neuropsychologia. 1995;33(11):1395–1417. doi: 10.1016/0028-3932(95)00072-B.
    1. Driskell JC, Copper C, Moran A. Does mental practice enhance performance? J Appl Psychol. 1994;79:481–192.
    1. Hamel O. "Imagerie mentale": A review of mental imagery in the French language on the world wide web. J Ment Imagery. 2001;25(1/2):83–98.
    1. Honeycutt JM, Ford SG. Mental imagery and intrapersonal communication: a review of research on imagined interactions (IIs) and current developments. Communication Yearbook. 2001;25:315–346. doi: 10.1207/s15567419cy2501_9.
    1. McKenna KT, Tooth LR. Mental practice and its implications for occupational therapists: A literature review. Brit J Occup Ther. 1991;54(5):169–172.
    1. Sheikh AA, Panagiotou NC. Use of mental imagery in psychotherapy: a critical review. Percept Mot Skills. 1975;41(2):555–585.
    1. Surburg PR. Application of imagery techniques to special populations. Adap Phys Activty Quart. 1989;6(4):328–337.
    1. LeBoutillier N, David FM. Mental imagery and creativity: a meta-analytic review study. Brit J Psychol. 2003;94(1):29. doi: 10.1348/000712603762842084.
    1. Martin K, Moritz S, Hall C. Imagery use in sports: a literature review and applied model. Mental practice. Int J Sport Psychol. 1999. pp. 245–268.
    1. Murphy SJ. Models of imagery in sport psychology: a review. J Ment Imagery. 1990. pp. 153–172.
    1. Richardson A. Mental practice: a review and discussion part I. Res Q. 1967;38:95–107.
    1. Richardson A. Mental practice: a review and discussion II. Res Q. 1967;38(2):263–273.
    1. Taktek K. The effects of mental imagery on the acquisition of motor skills and performance: A literature review with theoretical implications. J Ment Imagery. 2004;28:79–114.
    1. Grouios G. Mental practice: a review. J Sport Behav. 1992;15(1):42–59.
    1. Guillot A, Collet C. Construction of the motor imagery integrative model in sport: a review and theoretical investigation of motor imagery use. Int Rev Sport Exercise Psych. 2008;1(1):31–44. doi: 10.1080/17509840701823139.
    1. Van Leeuwen R, Inglis JTi. Mental practice and imagery: a potential role in stroke rehabilitation. Phys Ther Rev. 1998;3(1):47–54.
    1. Munroe KJ, Giacobbi PR, Hall C, Weinberg R. The four Ws of imagery use: where, when, why, and what. Sport Psychol. 2000;14(2):119–137.
    1. MacIntyre T, Moran A. A qualitative investigation of meta-imagery processes and imagery direction among elite athletes. J Imagery Res Sport Phys Activity. 2007;2(1) article 4.
    1. Holmes PS, Collins DJ. The PETTLEP approach to motor imagery: A functional equivalence model for sport psychologists. J Appl Sport Psychol. 2001;13(1):60–83.
    1. Watt AP, Morris T, Andersen MB. Issues in the development of a measure of imagery ability in sport. J Ment Imagery. 2004;28:149–180.
    1. Maher CG, Sherrington C, Herbert RD, Moseley AM, Elkins M. Reliability of the PEDro scale for rating quality of randomized controlled trials. Phys Ther. 2003;83(8):713–721.
    1. Tate RL, McDonald S, Perdices M, Togher L, Schultz R, Savage S. Rating the methodological quality of single-subject designs and n-of-1 trials: introducing the Single-Case Experimental Design (SCED) Scale. Neuropsychol Rehabil. 2008;18(4):385–401. doi: 10.1080/09602010802009201.
    1. Munro BH. Statistical methods for health care research. 5. Philadelphia, Penn.; London: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2005.
    1. Rapp G, Schoder G. Kinesthetic imagination and learning of motor skills. Psychol Erz Unterr. 1973;20(5):279–288.
    1. Taktek K, Salmoni A, Rigal R. The Effects of Mental Imagery on the Learning and Transfer of a Discrete Motor Task by Young Children. J Ment Imagery. 2004;28(3-4):87–120.
    1. Vergeer I, J R. Movement and stretching imagery during flexibility training. Journal of sports sciences. 2006;24(2):197–208. doi: 10.1080/02640410500131811.
    1. Guillot A, Lebon F, Vernay M, Girbon JP, Doyon J, Collet C. Effect of motor imagery in the rehabilitation of burn patients. J Burn Care Res. 2009;30(4):686–693. doi: 10.1097/BCR.0b013e3181ac0003.
    1. Cohn J. Experimentelle Untersuchungen über das Zusammenwirken des akustisch motorischen und des visuellen Gedächtnisses. Z Psychol Sinn. 1897;15:161–183.
    1. Galton F. Statistics of mental imagery. Mind. 1880;5:301–318.
    1. Etnier JL, Landers DM. The influence of procedural variables on the efficacy of mental practice. Sport Psychol. 1996;10(1):48–57.
    1. Jarus T, Ratzon NZ. Can you imagine? The effect of mental practice on the acquisition and retention of a motor skill as a function of age. Occup ther J Res. 2000;20(3):163–178.
    1. Butler T, Imperato-McGinley J, Pan H, Voyer D, Cordero J, Zhu YS, Stern E, Silbersweig D. Sex differences in mental rotation: Top-down versus bottom-up processing. Neuroimage. 2006;32(1):445–456. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.03.030.
    1. Giacobbi P. Age and activity-level differences in the use of exercise imagery. J Appl Sport Psychol. 2007;19(4):487–493. doi: 10.1080/10413200701601508.
    1. Lutz R, Landers DM, Linder DE. Procedural variables and skill level influences on pre-performance mental practice efficacy. J Ment Imagery. 2001;25(3-4):115–134.
    1. Callow N, Hardy L. The relationship between the use of kinaesthetic imagery and different visual imagery perspectives. J Sports Sci. 2004;22(2):167–177. doi: 10.1080/02640410310001641449.
    1. Moseley GL. Graded motor imagery for pathologic pain - A randomized controlled trial. Neurology. 2006;67(12):2129–2134. doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000249112.56935.32.
    1. Lorey B, Bischoff M, Pilgramm S, Stark R, Munzert J, Zentgraf K. The embodied nature of motor imagery: the influence of posture and perspective. Exp Brain Res. 2009;194(2):233–243. doi: 10.1007/s00221-008-1693-1.
    1. Mahoney MJ, Avener M. Psychology of the elite athlete: an exploratory study. Cognitive Ther Res. 1977;2:135–141.
    1. Ungerleider S, Golding JM. Mental practice among Olympic athletes. Percep motor skills. 1991;72:1007–1017. doi: 10.2466/PMS.72.3.1007-1017.
    1. Kim BH, Giacobbi PR Jr. The Use of exercise-related mental imagery by middle-aged adults. J Imagery Res Sport Phys Activity. 2009;4(1) Article 1.
    1. Mulder T, Hochstenbach JBH, van Heuvelen MJG, den Otter AR. Motor imagery: The relation between age and imagery capacity. Hum Movement Sci. 2007;26(2):203–211. doi: 10.1016/j.humov.2007.01.001.
    1. Jackson PL, Lafleur MF, Malouin F, Richards C, Doyon J. Potential role of mental practice using motor imagery in neurologic rehabilitation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001;82(8):1133–1141. doi: 10.1053/apmr.2001.24286.
    1. Grouios G. On the reduction of reaction time with mental practice. J Sport Behav. 1992;15(2):141–157.
    1. Guillot A, Tolleron C, Collet C. Does motor imagery enhance stretching and flexibility? J Sport Sci. 2010;28(3):291–298. doi: 10.1080/02640410903473828.
    1. Isaac AR. Mental practice: Does it work in the field? Sport Psychol. 1992;6(2):192–198.
    1. Lejeune M, Decker C, Sanchez X. Mental rehearsal in table tennis performance. Percept Motor Skills. 1994;79(Spec Issue Aug):627–641.
    1. Bovend'Eerdt TJ, Dawes H, Sackley C, Izadi H, Wade DT. An integrated motor imagery program to improve functional task performance in neurorehabilitation: a single-blind randomized controlled trial. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2010;91(6):939–946. doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2010.03.008.
    1. Dickstein R, Dunsky A, Marcovitz E. Motor imagery for gait rehabilitation in post-stroke hemiparesis. Phys Ther. 2004;84(12):1167–1177.
    1. Wright C, Hogard E, Ellis R, Smith D, Kelly C. Effect of PETTLEP imagery training on performance of nursing skills: Pilot study. J Adv Nurs. 2008;63(3):259–265. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.2008.04706.x.
    1. Jackson PL, Richards CL, Doyon J, Malouin Fi. The efficacy of combined physical and mental practice in the learning of a foot-sequence task after stroke: A case report. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2004;18(2):106–111. doi: 10.1177/0888439004265249.
    1. Malouin F, Richards CL, Doyon J, Desrosiers J, Belleville S. Training mobility tasks after stroke with combined mental and physical practice: a feasibility study. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2004;18(2):66–75. doi: 10.1177/0888439004266304.
    1. Malouin F, Richards CL, Durand A, Descent M, Poire D, Fremont P, Pelet S, Gresset J, Doyon J. Effects of practice, visual loss, limb amputation, and disuse on motor imagery vividness. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2009;23(5):449–463. doi: 10.1177/1545968308328733.
    1. Page SJ, Levine P, Sisto S, Johnston MV. A randomized efficacy and feasibility study of imagery in acute stroke. Clin Rehabil. 2001;15(3):233–240. doi: 10.1191/026921501672063235.
    1. Page SJ, Levine P, Sisto SA, Johnston MV. Mental practice combined with physical practice for upper-limb motor deficit in subacute stroke. Phys Ther. 2001;81(8):1455–1462.
    1. Stenekes MW, Geertzen JH, Nicolai JPA, De Jong BM, Mulder T. Motor imagery for peripheral injury response. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2009;90(8):1443–1444.
    1. Martin KA, Hall CR. Using mental imagery to enhance intrinsic motivation. J Sport Exerc Psych. 1995;17(1):54–69.
    1. Munroe JO, Chandler KJ. The effects of image speed on the performance of a soccer task. Sport Psychol. 2008;22(1):1–17.
    1. Reiser M. Strength gains by motor imagery of maximal muscle contractions. Z Sportpsychol. 2005. pp. 11–21.
    1. Ryan ED, Simons J. Cognitive demand, imagery, and frequency of mental rehearsal as factors influencing acquistion of motor skills. J Sport Psychol. 1981;3:35–45.
    1. Smith D, Collins D. Mental practice, motor performance, and the late CNV. J Sport Exerc Psych. 2004;26(3):412–426.
    1. Smith D, Holmes P, Whitemore L, Collins D, Devonport T. The effect of theoretically-based imagery scripts on field hockey performance. J Sport Behav. 2001;24(4):408–419.
    1. Toussaint L, Blandin Y. On the role of imagery modalities on motor learning. J Sport Sci. 2010;28(5):497–504. doi: 10.1080/02640410903555855.
    1. Wakefield CJ, Smith D. Impact of differing frequencies of PETTLEP imagery on netball shooting performance. J Imagery Res Sport Phys Act. 2009;4(1) ArtID 7.
    1. White KD, Ashton R, Lewis S. Learning a complex skill: Effects of mental practice, physical practice, and imagery ability. Int J Sport Psychol. 1979;10(2):71–78.
    1. Williams JG, Odley JL, Callaghan M. Motor imagery boosts proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation in the attainment and retention of range of motion at the hip joint. J Sport Sci Med. 2004;3(3):160–166.
    1. Wright CJ, Smith D. The effect of PETTLEP imagery on strength performance. J Sport Exerc Psych. 2009. pp. 18–31.
    1. Yaguez L, Nagel D, Hoffman H, Canavan AGM, Wist E, Homberg V. A mental route to motor learning: Improving trajectorial kinematics through imagery training. Behav Brain Res. 1998;90(1):95–106. doi: 10.1016/S0166-4328(97)00087-9.
    1. Robin N, Dominique L, Toussaint L, Blandin Y, Guillot A, Le Her M. Effects of motor imagery training in service return accuracy in tennis: the role of imagery ability. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2007;5(2):175–186.
    1. Smith D, Wright C, Allsopp A, Westhead H. It's All in the Mind: PETTLEP-Based Imagery and Sports Performance. J Appl Sport Psychol. 2007;19(1):80–92. doi: 10.1080/10413200600944132.
    1. Smith D, Wright CJ, Cantwell C. Beating the Bunker: The effect of PETTLEP imagery on golf bunker shot performance. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2008;79(3):385–391.
    1. Smith GG, Morey J, Tjoe E. Feature Masking in Computer Game Promotes Visual Imagery. Journal of Educational Computing Research. 2007;36(3):351–372. doi: 10.2190/U124-1761-7PU5-3666.
    1. Rodrigues EC, Lemos T, Gouvea B, Volchan E, Imbiriba LA, Vargas CD. Kinesthetic motor imagery modulates body sway. Neuroscience. 2010;169(2):743–750. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.04.081.
    1. Bovend'Eerdt TJH, Dawes H, Sackley C, Izadi H, Wade DT. Mental techniques during manual stretching in spasticity - a pilot randomized controlled trial. Clin Rehabil. 2009;23(2):137–145. doi: 10.1177/0269215508097298.
    1. Doheny MO. Effects of mental practice on performance of a psychomotor skill. J Ment Imagery. 1993;17:111–118.
    1. Moseley GL, Zalucki N, Birklein F, Marinus J, van Hilten JJ, Luomajoki H. Thinking about movement hurts: The effect of motor imagery on pain and swelling in people with chronic arm pain. Arthrit rheumat. 2008;59(5):623–631. doi: 10.1002/art.23580.
    1. Start KB. Intelligence and the improvement in a gross motor skill after mental practice. Brit J Educ Psychol. 1964;34(1):85–90. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8279.1964.tb00608.x.
    1. Start KB, Richardson A. Imagery and mental practice. Brit J Educ Psychol. 1964;34(3):280–284. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8279.1964.tb00638.x.
    1. Braun S, Beurskens AJ, Kleynen M, Oudelaar B, Schols JM, Wade DT. Effects of mental practice in stroke rehabilitation in Dutch nursing homes: results of a randomised controlled trial. 2010. in press .
    1. Braun S, Beurskens AJ, Kleynen M, Schols JM, Wade DT. Effects of mental practice in patients with Parkinson's disease: results from a multi-centre randomised controlled trial. 2010. in press .
    1. Morin L, Latham GP. The effect of mental practice and goal setting as a transfer of training intervention on supervisors' self-efficacy and communication skills: An exploratory study. Appl Psychol Int Rev. 2000;49(3):566–578. doi: 10.1111/1464-0597.00032.
    1. Rodgers KC. Directed imagery versus free imagery for inducing changes in self-perspective and mood. Dis Abstr Int. 1982;42(7-B):3001.
    1. Bucher L. The effects of imagery abilities and mental rehearsal on learning a nursing skill. J Nurs Edu. 1993;32(7):318–324.
    1. Doheny MO. Effects of mental practice on psychomotor skills with baccalaureate nursing students. Dis Abstr Int. 1990;51(2-B):659.
    1. Immenroth M, Eberspacher H, Nagelschmidt M, Troidl H, Burger T, Brenner J, Berg T, Muller M, Kemmler R. Mental training in surgery - Security by a better training: Design and first results of a study. MIC. 2005;14(1):69–74.
    1. Komesu Y, UrwitzLane R, Ozel B, Lukban J, Kahn M, Muir T, Fenner D, Rogers R. Does mental imagery prior to cystoscopy make a difference? A randomized controlled trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2009;201(2):218.e211–218.e219.
    1. Sanders CW, Sadoski M, Bramson R, Wiprud R, Van Walsum K. Comparing the effects of physical practice and mental imagery rehearsal on learning basic surgical skills by medical students. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;191(5):1811–1814. doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2004.07.075.
    1. Sanders CW, Sadoski M, van Walsum K, Bramson R, Wiprud R, Fossum TW. Learning basic surgical skills with mental imagery: using the simulation centre in the mind. Med Educ. 2008;42(6):607–612. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2007.02964.x.
    1. Stig LC, Christensen HW, Byfield D, Sasnow M. Comparison of the effectiveness of physical practice and mental practice in the learning of chiropractic adjustive skills. Eur J Chiropractic. 1989;37(3):70–76.
    1. Welk A, Immenroth M, Sakic P, Bernhardt O, Eberspächer H, Meyer G. Mental training in dentistry. Quintessence Int. 2007;38(6):489–497.
    1. Cramer SC, Orr ELR, Cohen MJ, Lacourse MG. Effects of motor imagery training after chronic, complete spinal cord injury. Exp Brain Res. 2007;177(2):233–242. doi: 10.1007/s00221-006-0662-9.
    1. Crosbie JH, McDonough SM, Gilmore DH, Wiggam MI. The adjunctive role of mental practice in the rehabilitation of the upper limb after hemiplegic stroke: a pilot study. Clin Rehabil. 2004;18(1):60–68. doi: 10.1191/0269215504cr702oa.
    1. Dijkerman HC, Ietswaart M, Johnston M, MacWalter RS. Does motor imagery training improve hand function in chronic stroke patients? A pilot study. Clin Rehabil. 2004;18(5):538–549. doi: 10.1191/0269215504cr769oa.
    1. Dunsky A, Dickstein R, Ariav C, Deutsch J, Marcovitz E. Motor imagery practice in gait rehabilitation of chronic post-stroke hemiparesis: four case studies. Int J Rehabil Res. 2006;29(4):351–356. doi: 10.1097/MRR.0b013e328010f559.
    1. Dunsky A, Dickstein R, Marcovitz E, Levy S, Deutsch J. Home-based motor imagery training for gait rehabilitation of people with chronic poststroke hemiparesis. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2008;89(8):1580–1588. doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2007.12.039.
    1. Gustin SM, Wrigley PJ, Gandevia SC, Middleton JW, Henderson LA, Siddall PJ. Movement imagery increases pain in people with neuropathic pain following complete thoracic spinal cord injury. Pain. 2008;137(2):237–244. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2007.08.032.
    1. Hewett TE, Ford KR, Levine P, Page SJ. Reaching kinematics to measure motor changes after mental practice in stroke. Top Stroke Rehabil. 2007;14(4):23–29. doi: 10.1310/tsr1404-23.
    1. Jackson PL, Doyon J, Richards CL, Malouin F. The efficacy of combined physical and mental practice in the learning of a foot-sequence task after stroke: a case report. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2004;18(2):106–111. doi: 10.1177/0888439004265249.
    1. Liu KP, Chan CC, Lee TM, HuiChan CW. Mental imagery for promoting relearning for people after stroke: A randomized controlled trial. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85(9):1403–1408. doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2003.12.035.
    1. Liu KP, Chan CC, Lee TM, Hui-Chan CW. Mental imagery for relearning of people after brain injury. Brain Inj. 2004;18(11):1163–1172. doi: 10.1080/02699050410001671883.
    1. Liu KPY, Chan CCH, Wong RSM, Kwan IWL, Yau CSF, Li LSW, Lee TMC. A randomized controlled trial of mental imagery augment generalization of learning in acute poststroke patients. Stroke. 2009;40(6):2222–2225. doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.540997.
    1. McCarthy M, Beaumont JG, Thompson R, Pringle H. The role of imagery in the rehabilitation of neglect in severely disabled brain-injured adults. Arch Clin Neuropsych. 2002;17(5):407–422.
    1. Moseley GL. Graded motor imagery is effective for long-standing complex regional pain syndrome: a randomised controlled trial. Pain. 2004;108(1-2):192–198. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2004.01.006.
    1. Moseley GL. Is successful rehabilitation of complex regional pain syndrome due to sustained attention to the affected limb? A randomised clinical trial. PPA News. 2005;114(1-2):54–61.
    1. Mueller K, Butefisch CM, Seitz RJ, Homberg V. Mental practice improves hand function after hemiparetic stroke. Restor Neurol Neurosci. 2007;25(5-6):501–511.
    1. Page SJ. Imagery improves upper extremity motor function in chronic stroke patients: a pilot study. Occup Ther J Res. 2000;20(3):200–215.
    1. Page SJ, Levine P, Leonard AC. Effects of mental practice on affected limb use and function in chronic stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;86(3):399–402. doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2004.10.002.
    1. Page SJ, Levine P, Hill V. Mental practice as a gateway to modified constraint-induced movement therapy: A promising combination to improve function. Am J Occup Ther. 2007;61(3):321–327.
    1. Page SJ, Levine P, Leonard A. Mental practice in chronic stroke: Results of a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Stroke. 2007;38(4):1293–1297. doi: 10.1161/01.STR.0000260205.67348.2b.
    1. Page SJ, Szaflarski JP, Eliassen JC, Pan H, Cramer SC. Cortical plasticity following motor skill learning during mental practice in stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2009;23(4):382–388.
    1. Page SJ, Levine P, Khoury JC. Modified constraint-induced therapy combined with mental practice thinking through better motor outcomes. Stroke. 2009;40(2):551–554. doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.528760.
    1. Riccio I, Iolascon G, Barillari MR, Gimigliano R, Gimigliano F. Mental practice is effective in upper limb recovery after stroke: A randomized single-blind cross-over study. Eur J Rehabil Med. 2010;46(1):19–25.
    1. Simmons L, Sharma N, Baron JC, Pomeroy VM. Motor imagery to enhance recovery after subcortical stroke: who might benefit, daily dose, and potential effects. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2008;22(5):458–467. doi: 10.1177/1545968308315597.
    1. Stevens JA, Stoykov ME. Using motor imagery in the rehabilitation of hemiparesis. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2003;84(7):1090–1092. doi: 10.1016/S0003-9993(03)00042-X.
    1. Tamir R, Dickstein R, Huberman M. Integration of motor imagery and physical practice in group treatment applied to subjects with Parkinson's disease. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2007;21(1):68–75. doi: 10.1177/1545968306292608.
    1. Yoo E, Chung B. The effect of visual feedback plus mental practice on symmetrical weight-bearing training in people with hemiparesis. Clin Rehabil. 2006;20(5):388–397. doi: 10.1191/0269215506cr962oa. (334 ref) NLI: 8802181.
    1. Coffman DD. Effects of mental practice, physical practice, and knowledge of results on piano performance. J Res Music Educ. 1990;38(3):187–196. doi: 10.2307/3345182.
    1. Ross SL. The effectiveness of mental practice in improving the performance of college trombonists. J Res Music Educ. 1985;33(4):221–230. doi: 10.2307/3345249.
    1. Rubin Rabson G. Studies in the psychology of memorizing piano music. VI: A comparison of two forms of mental rehearsal and keyboard overlearning. J Educ Psychol. 1941;32(8):593–602.
    1. Sonnenschein I. Mentales Training in der Instrumentenausbildung (MTI) Psychol Erz Unterr. 1990;37(3):232–236.
    1. Theiler AM, Lippman LG. Effects of mental practice and modeling on guitar and vocal performance. J Gen Psychol. 1995;122(4):329–343. doi: 10.1080/00221309.1995.9921245.
    1. Allami N, Paulignan Y, Brovelli A, Boussaoud D. Visuo-motor learning with combination of different rates of motor imagery and physical practice. Exp Brain Res. 2008;184(1):105–113.
    1. Alves J, Belga P, Brito AP. Mental Training and Motor Learning in Volleyball. Prague: European Federation of Sport Psychology. 1999. pp. 59–61.
    1. Andre JC, Means JR. Rate of imagery in mental practice: An experimental investigation. J Sport Psychol. 1986;8(2):124–128.
    1. Chevalier N, Boucher JP, Geoffrion R, Denis M. Visual and kinesthetic imagery in the mental rehearsal of a complex movement: an exploratory study. Sports science: 8 Commonwealth and international conference on sport, physical education, dance, recreation and health: 1986; Glasgow. 1986. pp. 343–348.
    1. Clark LV. Effect of mental practice on the development of a certain motor skill. Res Q Am Ass Health, Phys Ed Recr. 1960;31:560–569.
    1. Clegg BA, Wood JA, Bugg JM. Real and imagined movements in older and younger adults. J Ment Imagery. 2004;28(1-2):1–16.
    1. Corbin CB. Effects of mental practice on the development of a specific motor skill. PhD thesis. Eugene, Ore.; United States: University of New Mexico; 1966.
    1. Cornwall MW, Bruscato MP, Barry S. The effect of mental practice on isometric muscular strength. J Orthop Sport Phys. 1991;13:231–234.
    1. Decety J. Motor information may be important for updating the cognitive processes involved in mental imagery of movement. Cur Psychol Cogn. 1991;11(4):415–426.
    1. Gassner K, Einsiedel T, Linke M, Grlich P, Mayer J. Does mental training improve learning to walk with a femoral prosthesis? Orthopade. 2007;36(7):673–678. doi: 10.1007/s00132-007-1092-5.
    1. Gordon S, Weinberg R, Jackson A. Effect of internal and external imagery on cricket performance. J Sport Behav. 1994;17:60–76.
    1. Gray SW. Effect of visuomotor rehearsal with videotaped modeling on racquetball performance of beginning players. Percept Motor Skills. 1990;70(2):379–385. doi: 10.2466/PMS.70.2.379-385.
    1. Hellwing W, Knuff W. Mental preparation: a possibility for intensifying physical education. Sportunterricht. 1976;25(6):180–187.
    1. Hemayattalab R, Movahedi A. Effects of different variations of mental and physical practice on sport skill learning in adolescents with mental retardation. Res Dev Disabil. 2009;31(1):81–86.
    1. Herrero JA, Garcia D, Soria E. Influence of imagery rehearsal on the maximum isometric force in bench press. Policlinico Sez Med. 2004;111(1):11–20.
    1. Jaehme W, Steinhoefer D. Empirical study on the effectiveness of mental training in swimming with 10th and 11th grade high school students. Lehrhilf Sportunterr. 1978;27(5):71–74.
    1. Jones JG. Motor learning without demonstration of physical practice, under two conditions of mental practice. Res Quart. 1965;36(3):270–276.
    1. Kelsey IB. Effects of mental practice and physical practice upon muscular endurance. Res Quat. 1961;32:47–54.
    1. Kohl RM, Roenker DL. Bilateral transfer as a function of mental imagery. J Motor Behav. 1980;12(3):197–206.
    1. Kornspan AS, Overby L, Lerner BS. Analysis and performance ofpre-performance imagery and other strategies on a golf putting task. J Ment Imagery. 2004;28:59–74.
    1. Kremer P, Spittle M, McNeil D, Shinners C. Amount of mental practice and performance of a simple motor task. Percept Motor Skills. 2009;109(2):347–356. doi: 10.2466/pms.109.2.347-356.
    1. Krigolson O, Van Gyn G, Tremblay L, Heath M. Is There "Feedback" During Visual Imagery? Evidence From a Specificity of Practice Paradigm. Can J Exp Psychol. 2006;60(1):24–32.
    1. Linden CA, Uhley JE, Smith D, Bush MA. The effects of mental practice on walking balance in an elderly population. Occup Ther J Res. 1989;9(3):155–169.
    1. Maring JR. Effects of mental practice on rate of skill acquisition. Phys Ther. 1990;70(3):165–172.
    1. McAleney PJ, Barabasz AF, Barabasz M. Effects of flotation restricted environmental stimulation on intercollegiate tennis performance. Percept Motor Skills. 1990;71(3):1023–1028.
    1. Minas SC. Mental practice of a complex perceptual-motor skill. J Hum Movement Stud. 1978;4(2):102–107.
    1. Papaxanthis C, Pozzo T, Skoura X, Schieppati M. Does order and timing in performance of imagined and actual movements affect the motor imagery process? The duration of walking and writing task. Behav Brain Res. 2002;134(1-2):209–215. doi: 10.1016/S0166-4328(02)00030-X.
    1. Phipps SJ, Morehouse CA. Effects of mental practice on the acquisition of motor skills of varied difficulty. Res Q Exericse Sport. 1969;40(4):773–778.
    1. Ranganathan VK, Siemionow V, Liu JZ, Sahgal V, Yue GH. From mental power to muscle power--gaining strength by using the mind. Neuropsychologia. 2004;42(7):944–956. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2003.11.018.
    1. Rawlings EI, Rawlings IL, Chen SS, Yilk MD. The facilitating effects of mental rehearsal in the acquisition of rotary pursuit tracking. Psychon Sci. 1972;26(2):71–73.
    1. Ryan ED, Simons J. Cognitive demand, imagery, and frequency of mental rehearsal as factors influencing acquisition of motor skills. J Sport Psychol. 1981;3(1):35–45.
    1. Ryan ED, Simons J. Efficacy of mental imagery in enhancing mental rehearsal of motor skills. J Sport Psychol. 1982;4(1):41–51.
    1. Shackell EM, Standing LG. Mind Over Matter: Mental Training Increases Physical Strength. N Am J Psychol. 2007;9(1):189–200.
    1. Sidaway S, Trzaska A. Can mental practice increase ankle dorsiflexor torque? Phys Ther. 2005;85(10):1053–1060.
    1. Singer RN, Witker J. Mental rehearsal and point of introduction within the context of overt practice. Percept Motor Skills. 1970;31(1):169–170.
    1. Smith LE, Harrison JS. Comparison of the effects of visual, motor, mental, and guided practice upon speed and accuracy of performing a simple eye-hand coordination task. Res Q Am Assoc Health, Phys Ed Recr. 1962;33(2):299–307.
    1. Smyth MM. The role of mental practice in skill acquisition. J Motor Behav. 1975;7(3):199–206.
    1. Start KB. Relationship between intelligence and the effect of mental practice on the performance of a motor skill. Res Q Am Assoc Health, Phys Ed Recr. 1960;31:644–649.
    1. Start KB. Kinaesthesis and mental practice. Res Q Am Assoc Health, Phys Ed Recr. 1964;35(3):316–320.
    1. Stebbins RJ. A comparison of the effects of physical and mental practice in learning a motor skill. Res Quart. 1968;39(3):714–720.
    1. Surburg PR. Aging and effect of physical-mental practice upon acquisition and retention of a motor skill. J Gerontol. 1976;31(1):64–67.
    1. Tunney N, Billings K, Blakely BG, Burch D, Jackson K. Mental practice and motor learning of a functional motor task in older adults: a pilot study. Phys Occup Ther Geriatr. 2006;24(3):63–80.
    1. Twining WE. Mental practice and physical practice in learning a motor skill. Res Q Am Assoc Health, Phys Ed Recr. 1949;20:432–435.
    1. Van Gyn G, Wenger HA, Gaul C. Imagery as a method of enhancing trenasfer from training to performance. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 1990. pp. 366–375.
    1. Vandell RA, Davis RA, Clugston HA. The function of mental practice in the acquisition of motor skills. J Gen Psychol. 1943;29:243–250.
    1. Whiteley G. Effect of mental rehearsal in association with physical practice in the acquisitions of simple gymnastic techniques. Research papers in physical education. 1966;3(Dec):25–28.
    1. Wohldmann EL, Healy AF, Bourne LE. Pushing the Limits of Imagination: Mental Practice for Learning Sequences. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 2007;33(1):254–261.
    1. Woolfolk RL, Murphy SM, Gottesfeld D, Aitken D. Effects of mental rehearsal of task motor activity and mental depiction of task outcome on motor skill performance. J Sport Psychol. 1985;7(2):191–197.
    1. Woolfolk RL, Parrish MW, Murphy SM. The effects of positive and negative imagery on motor skill performance. Cognitive Ther Res. 1985;9(3):335–341. doi: 10.1007/BF01183852.
    1. Zecker SG. Mental practice and knowledge of results in the learning of a perceptual motor skill. J Sport Psychol. 1982;4(1):52–63.
    1. Casby A, Moran A. Exploring mental imagery in swimmers: A single-case study design. Irish J Psychol. 1998;19(4):525–531.
    1. Guillot A, Nadrowska E, Collet C. Using Motor Imagery to Learn Tactical Movements in Basketball. J Sport Behav. 2009;32(2):189.
    1. Olsson CJ, Jonsson B, Nyberg L. Internal imagery training in active high jumpers. Scand J Psychol. 2008. Apr 2008.
    1. Shambrook CJ, Bull SJ. The use of a single-case research design to investigate the efficacy of imagery training. J Appl Sport Psychol. 1996;8(1):27–43. doi: 10.1080/10413209608406306.
    1. Ziemainz H, Stoll O, Kuster C, Adler K. Evaluation of the mental training of the change from one event to the other in youth and junior triathlon. Leistungssport. 2003;33(2):20–22.

Source: PubMed

Patrocinadores e Colaboradores

Condições médicas

Intervenções de drogas

3
Se inscrever