Can Mindfulness Address Maladaptive Eating Behaviors? Why Traditional Diet Plans Fail and How New Mechanistic Insights May Lead to Novel Interventions

Judson A Brewer, Andrea Ruf, Ariel L Beccia, Gloria I Essien, Leonard M Finn, Remko van Lutterveld, Ashley E Mason, Judson A Brewer, Andrea Ruf, Ariel L Beccia, Gloria I Essien, Leonard M Finn, Remko van Lutterveld, Ashley E Mason

Abstract

Emotional and other maladaptive eating behaviors develop in response to a diversity of triggers, from psychological stress to the endless external cues in our modern food environment. While the standard approach to food- and weight-related concerns has been weight-loss through dietary restriction, these interventions have produced little long-term benefit, and may be counterproductive. A growing understanding of the behavioral and neurobiological mechanisms that underpin habit formation may explain why this approach has largely failed, and pave the way for a new generation of non-pharmacologic interventions. Here, we first review how modern food environments interact with human biology to promote reward-related eating through associative learning, i.e., operant conditioning. We also review how operant conditioning (positive and negative reinforcement) cultivates habit-based reward-related eating, and how current diet paradigms may not directly target such eating. Further, we describe how mindfulness training that targets reward-based learning may constitute an appropriate intervention to rewire the learning process around eating. We conclude with examples that illustrate how teaching patients to tap into and act on intrinsic (e.g., enjoying healthy eating, not overeating, and self-compassion) rather than extrinsic reward mechanisms (e.g., weighing oneself), is a promising new direction in improving individuals' relationship with food.

Keywords: craving; disordered eating; maladaptive eating behaviors; mindful eating; mindfulness; obesity; operant conditioning; reward.

Figures

FIGURE 1
FIGURE 1
The habit loop. Development of habitual reward-based eating via positive and negative reinforcement.

References

    1. Adriaanse M. A., Prinsen S., de Witt Huberts J. C., de Ridder D. T. D., Evers C. (2016). “I Ate Too Much So I Must Have Been Sad”: emotions as a confabulated reason for overeating. Appetite 103 318–323. 10.1016/j.appet.2016.04.028
    1. Appleton K. M., McGowan L. (2006). The relationship between restrained eating and poor psychological health is moderated by pleasure normally associated with eating. Eat. Behav. 7 342–347. 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2005.11.008
    1. Arnsten A. F. T. (2009). Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 10 410–422. 10.1038/nrn2648
    1. Arnsten A. F. T. (2015). Stress weakens prefrontal networks: molecular insults to higher cognition. Nat. Neurosci. 18 1376–1385. 10.1038/nn.4087
    1. Avena N. M., Rada P., Hoebel B. G. (2006). Sugar bingeing in rats. Curr. Protoc. Neurosci. 36 9.23C.1–9.23C.6. 10.1002/0471142301.ns0923cs36
    1. Avena N. M., Rada P., Hoebel B. G. (2008). Evidence for sugar addiction: behavioral and neurochemical effects of intermittent, excessive sugar intake. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 32 20–39. 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.04.019
    1. Bacon L., Aphramor L. (2011). Weight science: evaluating the evidence for a paradigm shift. Nutr. J. 10:9. 10.1186/1475-2891-10-9
    1. Bechara A. (2005). Decision making, impulse control and loss of willpower to resist drugs: a neurocognitive perspective. Nat. Neurosci. 8 1458–1463. 10.1038/nn1584
    1. Berridge K. C. (2009). “Liking” and “wanting” food rewards: brain substrates and roles in eating disorders. Physiol. Behav. 97 537–550. 10.1016/j.physbeh.2009.02.044
    1. Bhikkhu T. (trans.) (2013). Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta: Setting the Wheel of Dhamma in Motion (SN: 56.11). Available at:
    1. Bishop S. R., Lau M., Shapiro S., Carlson L., Anderson N. D., Carmody J., et al. (2004). Mindfulness: a proposed operational definition. Clin. Psychol. Sci. Pract. 11 230–241. 10.1093/clipsy/bph077
    1. Bongers P., de Graaff A., Jansen A. (2016). Emotional” does not even start to cover it: generalization of overeating in emotional eaters. Appetite 96 611–616. 10.1016/j.appet.2015.11.004
    1. Bongers P., Jansen A. (2016). Emotional eating is not what you think it is and emotional eating scales do not measure what you think they measure. Front. Psychol. 7:1932. 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01932
    1. Born J. M., Lemmens S. G. T., Rutters F., Nieuwenhuizen A. G., Formisano E., Goebel R., et al. (2010). Acute stress and food-related reward activation in the brain during food choice during eating in the absence of hunger. Int. J. Obes. 34 172–181. 10.1038/ijo.2009.221
    1. Brewer J., Pbert L. (2015). Mindfulness: an emerging treatment for smoking and other addictions? J. Fam. Med. 2:1035. 10.1093/scan/nsr076
    1. Brewer J. A. (2018). Feeling is believing: the convergence of buddhist theory and modern scientific evidence supporting how self is formed and perpetuated through feeling tone (Vedanâ). Contemp. Buddhism 19 113–126. 10.1080/14639947.2018.1443553
    1. Brewer J. A., Davis J. H., Goldstein J. (2013a). Why is it so hard to pay attention, or is it? mindfulness, the factors of awakening and reward-based learning. Mindfulness 4 75–80. 10.1007/s12671-012-0164-8
    1. Brewer J. A., Elwafi H. M., Davis J. H. (2013b). Craving to quit: psychological models and neurobiological mechanisms of mindfulness training as treatment for addictions. Psychol. Addict. Behav. 27 366–379. 10.1037/a0028490
    1. Brewer J. A., Mallik S., Babuscio T. A., Nich C., Johnson H. E., Deleone C. M., et al. (2011). Mindfulness training for smoking cessation: results from a randomized controlled trial. Drug Alcohol Depend. 119 72–80. 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.05.027
    1. Burger K. S., Sanders A. J., Gilbert J. R. (2016). Hedonic hunger is related to increased neural and perceptual responses to cues of palatable food and motivation to consume: evidence from 3 independent investigations. J. Nutr. 146 1807–1812. 10.3945/jn.116.231431
    1. Calzo J. P., Blashill A. J., Brown T. A., Argenal R. L. (2017). Eating disorders and disordered weight and shape control behaviors in sexual minority populations. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 19:49. 10.1007/s11920-017-0801-y
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2016). Nutrition Physical Activity and Obesity Data Trends and Maps. Atlanta, GA: Available at:
    1. Chacko S. A., Chiodi S. N., Wee C. C. (2015). Recognizing disordered eating in primary care patients with obesity. Prev. Med. 72 89–94. 10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.12.024
    1. Christensen L., Pettijohn L. (2001). Mood and carbohydrate cravings. Appetite 36 137–145. 10.1006/appe.2001.0390
    1. Dallman M. F. (2010). Stress-induced obesity and the emotional nervous system. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 21 159–165. 10.1016/j.tem.2009.10.004
    1. Dayan P., Niv Y. (2008). Reinforcement learning: the good, the bad and the ugly. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 18 185–196. 10.1016/j.conb.2008.08.003
    1. DelParigi A., Chen K., Salbe A. D., Hill J. O., Wing R. R., Reiman E. M., et al. (2007). Successful dieters have increased neural activity in cortical areas involved in the control of behavior. Int. J. Obes. 31 440–448. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0803431
    1. DiFranza J. R. (2016). Can tobacco dependence provide insights into other drug addictions? BMC Psychiatry 16:365. 10.1186/s12888-016-1074-4
    1. Diggins A., Woods-Giscombe C., Waters S. (2015). The association of perceived stress, contextualized stress, and emotional eating with body mass index in college-aged Black women. Eat. Behav. 19 188–192. 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2015.09.006
    1. Dombrowski S. U., Knittle K., Avenell A., Araújo-Soares V., Sniehotta F. F. (2014). Long term maintenance of weight loss with non-surgical interventions in obese adults: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 348:g2646. 10.1136/bmj.g2646
    1. Eldridge J. D., Devine C. M., Wethington E., Aceves L., Phillips-Caesar E., Wansink B., et al. (2016). Environmental influences on small eating behavior change to promote weight loss among black and hispanic populations. Appetite 96 129–137. 10.1016/j.appet.2015.09.011
    1. Elwafi H. M., Witkiewitz K., Mallik S., Thornhill T. A., Brewer J. A. (2013). Mindfulness training for smoking cessation: moderation of the relationship between craving and cigarette use. Drug Alcohol Depend. 130 222–229. 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.11.015
    1. Eneva K. T., Murray S., O’Garro-Moore J., Yiu A., Alloy L. B., Avena N. M., et al. (2017). Reward and punishment sensitivity and disordered eating behaviors in men and women. J. Eat. Disord. 5:6. 10.1186/s40337-017-0138-2
    1. Epel E. S., Tomiyama A. J., Mason A. E., Laraia B. A., Hartman W., Ready K., et al. (2014). The reward-based eating drive scale: a self-report index of reward-based eating. PLoS One 9:e101350. 10.1371/journal.pone.0101350
    1. Epstein L. H., Leddy J. J., Temple J. L., Faith M. S. (2007). Food reinforcement and eating: a multilevel analysis. Psychol. Bull. 133 884–906. 10.1037/0033-2909.133.5.884
    1. Farrow C. V., Haycraft E., Blissett J. M. (2015). Teaching our children when to eat: how parental feeding practices inform the development of emotional eating: a longitudinal experimental design. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 101 908–913. 10.3945/ajcn.114.103713
    1. Fothergill E., Guo J., Howard L., Kerns J. C., Knuth N. D., Brychta R., et al. (2016). Persistent metabolic adaptation 6 years after “The Biggest Loser”. Compet. Obes. 24 1612–1619. 10.1002/oby.21538
    1. Franz M. J., VanWormer J. J., Crain A. L., Boucher J. L., Histon T., Caplan W., et al. (2007). Weight-loss outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of weight-loss clinical trials with a minimum 1-year follow-up. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 107 1755–1767. 10.1016/j.jada.2007.07.017
    1. Friese M., Messner C., Schaffner Y. (2012). Mindfulness meditation counteracts self-control depletion. Conscious. Cogn. 21 1016–1022. 10.1016/j.concog.2012.01.008
    1. Garrison K. A., Pal P., Rojiani R., Dallery J., O’Malley S. S., Brewer J. A. (2015). A randomized controlled trial of smartphone-based mindfulness training for smoking cessation: a study protocol. BMC Psychiatry 15:83. 10.1186/s12888-015-0468-z
    1. Garrison K. A., Santoyo J. F., Davis J. H., Thornhill T. A., Kerr C. E., Brewer J. A. (2013). Effortless awareness: using real time neurofeedback to investigate correlates of posterior cingulate cortex activity in meditators’ self-report. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 7:440. 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00440
    1. Giuliani N. R., Berkman E. T. (2015). Craving is an affective state and its regulation can be understood in terms of the extended process model of emotion regulation. Psychol. Inq. 26 48–53. 10.1080/1047840X.2015.955072
    1. Godfrey K. M., Gallo L. C., Afari N. (2015). Mindfulness-based interventions for binge eating: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Behav. Med. 38 348–362. 10.1007/s10865-014-9610-5
    1. Godsey J. (2013). The role of mindfulness based interventions in the treatment of obesity and eating disorders: an integrative review. Complement. Ther. Med. 21 430–490. 10.1016/j.ctim.2013.06.003
    1. Greaves C. J., Campbell J. L. (2007). Supporting self-care in general practice. Br. J. Gen. Pract. 57 814–821. 10.3399/096016407782605018
    1. Greeno C. G., Wing R. R. (1994). Stress-induced eating. Psychol. Bull. 115 444–464. 10.1037/0033-2909.115.3.444
    1. Hays N. P., Roberts S. B. (2008). Aspects of eating behaviors disinhibition and restraint are related to weight gain and BMI in Women. Obesity 16 52–58. 10.1038/oby.2007.12
    1. Heatherton T. F., Wagner D. D. (2011). Cognitive neuroscience of self-regulation failure. Trends Cogn. Sci. 15 132–139. 10.1016/j.tics.2010.12.005
    1. Herman C. P., Mack D. (1975). Restrained and unrestrained eating. J. Personal. 43 647–660. 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1975.tb00727.x
    1. Hill J. O. (2009). Can a small-changes approach help address the obesity epidemic? a report of the joint task force of the american society for nutrition, institute of food technologists, and international food information council. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 89 477–484. 10.3945/ajcn.2008.26566
    1. Jansen A., Schyns G., Bongers P., van den Akker K. (2016). From lab to clinic: extinction of cued cravings to reduce overeating. Physiol. Behav. 162 174–180. 10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.03.018
    1. Joyner M. A., Gearhardt A. N., White M. A. (2015). Food craving as a mediator between addictive-like eating and problematic eating outcomes. Eat. Behav. 19 98–101. 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2015.07.005
    1. Kabat-Zinn J. (1982). An outpatient program in behavioral medicine for chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulness meditation: theoretical considerations and preliminary results. Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry 4 33–47. 10.1016/0163-8343(82)90026-3
    1. Kabat-Zinn J. (2006). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: past, present, and future. Clin. Psychol. Sci. Pract. 10 144–156. 10.1093/clipsy.bpg016
    1. Kaplan H. L., Kaplan H. S. (1957). The psychosomatic concept of obesity. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 125 181–201.
    1. Katterman S. N., Kleinman B. M., Hood M. M., Nackers L. M., Corsica J. A. (2014). Mindfulness meditation as an intervention for binge eating, emotional eating, and weight loss: a systematic review. Eat. Behav. 15 197–204. 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2014.01.005
    1. Kringelbach M. L. (2005). The human orbitofrontal cortex: linking reward to hedonic experience. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 6 691–702. 10.1038/nrn1747
    1. Kristeller J. L., Wolever R. Q. (2011). Mindfulness-based eating awareness training for treating binge eating disorder: the conceptual foundation. Eat. Disord. 19 49–61. 10.1080/10640266.2011.533605
    1. Krueger P. M., Reither E. N. (2015). Mind the gap: race/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in obesity. Curr. Diab. Rep. 15:95. 10.1007/s11892-015-0666-6
    1. Lafay L., Thomas F., Mennen L., Charles M. A., Eschwege E., Borys J. M., et al. (2001). Gender differences in the relation between food cravings and mood in an adult community: results from the Fleurbaix Laventie Ville Santé Study. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 29 195–204.
    1. Lenoir M., Serre F., Cantin L., Ahmed S. H. (2007). Intense sweetness surpasses cocaine reward. PLoS One 2:e698. 10.1371/journal.pone.0000698
    1. Lowe M. R., Butryn M. L. (2007). Hedonic hunger: a new dimension of appetite? Physiol. Behav. 91 432–439. 10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.04.006
    1. MacLean P. S., Bergouignan A., Cornier M.-A., Jackman M. R. (2011). Biology’s response to dieting: the impetus for weight regain. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 301 R581–R600. 10.1152/ajpregu.00755.2010
    1. Mangweth-Matzek B., Hoek H. W., Rupp C. I., Lackner-Seifert K., Frey N., Whitworth A. B., et al. (2014). Prevalence of eating disorders in middle-aged women. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 47 320–324. 10.1002/eat.22232
    1. Mann T., Tomiyama A. J., Westling E., Lew A.-M., Samuels B., Chatman J. (2007). Medicare’s search for effective obesity treatments: diets are not the answer. Am. Psychol. 62 220–233. 10.1037/0003-066X.62.3.220
    1. Mantzios M., Wilson J. C. (2014). Making concrete construals mindful: a novel approach for developing mindfulness and self-compassion to assist weight loss. Psychol. Health 29 422–441. 10.1080/08870446.2013.863883
    1. Mantzios M., Wilson J. C. (2015). Exploring mindfulness and mindfulness with self-compassion-centered interventions to assist weight loss: theoretical considerations and preliminary results of a randomized pilot study. Mindfulness 6 824–835. 10.1007/s12671-014-0325-z
    1. Marques L., Alegria M., Becker A. E., Chen C. N., Fang A., Chosak A., et al. (2011). Comparative prevalence, correlates of impairment, and service utilization for eating disorders across us ethnic groups: implications for reducing ethnic disparities in health care access for eating disorders. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 44 412–420. 10.1002/eat.20787
    1. Mason A. E., Jhaveri K., Cohn M., Brewer J. A. (2017). Testing a mobile mindful eating intervention targeting craving-related eating: feasibility and proof of concept. J. Behav. Med. 41 160–173. 10.1007/s10865-017-9884-5
    1. May J., Andrade J., Kavanagh D. J., Hetherington M. (2012). Elaborated intrusion theory: a cognitive-emotional theory of food craving. Curr. Obes. Rep. 1 114–121. 10.1007/s13679-012-0010-2
    1. Mead N. L., Baumeister R. F., Gino F., Schweitzer M. E., Ariely D. (2009). Too tired to tell the truth: self-control resource depletion and dishonesty. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 45 594–597. 10.1016/j.jesp.2009.02.004
    1. Miller-Matero L. R., Armstrong R., McCulloch K., Hyde-Nolan M., Eshelman A., Genaw J. (2014). To eat or not to eat; is that really the question? an evaluation of problematic eating behaviors and mental health among bariatric surgery candidates. Eat. Weight Disord. 19 377–382. 10.1007/s40519-014-0118-3
    1. O’Reilly G. A., Cook L., Spruijt-Metz D., Black D. S. (2014). Mindfulness-based interventions for obesity-related eating behaviours: a literature review. Obes. Rev. 15 453–461. 10.1111/obr.12156
    1. Ouwens M. A., van Strien T., van Leeuwe J. F. J. (2009). Possible pathways between depression, emotional and external eating. a structural equation model. Appetite 53 245–248. 10.1016/j.appet.2009.06.001
    1. Péneau S., Ménard E., Méjean C., Bellisle F., Hercberg S. (2013). Sex and dieting modify the association between emotional eating and weight status. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 97 1307–1313. 10.3945/ajcn.112.054916
    1. Polivy J., Coleman J., Herman C. P. (2005). The effect of deprivation on food cravings and eating behavior in restrained and unrestrained eaters. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 38 301–309. 10.1002/eat.20195
    1. Polivy J., Herman C. P. (1985). Dieting and binging. a causal analysis. Am. Psychol. 40 193–201. 10.1037/0003-066X.40.2.193
    1. Polivy J., Herman C. P. (2017). Restrained eating and food cues: recent findings and conclusions. Curr. Obes. Rep. 6 79–85. 10.1007/s13679-017-0243-1
    1. Rada P., Avena N. M., Hoebel B. G. (2005). Daily bingeing on sugar repeatedly releases dopamine in the accumbens shell. Neuroscience 134 737–744. 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.04.043
    1. Ricca V., Castellini G., Lo Sauro C., Ravaldi C., Lapi F., Mannucci E., et al. (2009). Correlations between binge eating and emotional eating in a sample of overweight subjects. Appetite 53 418–421. 10.1016/j.appet.2009.07.008
    1. Rossy L. (2016). The Mindfulness-Based Eating Solution: Proven Strategies to End Overeating, Satisfy Your Hunger, and Savor Your Life. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications.
    1. Russell-Mayhew S., Grace A. D. (2016). A call for social justice and best practices for the integrated prevention of eating disorders and obesity. Eat. Disord. 24 54–62. 10.1080/10640266.2015.1113829
    1. Schachter S., Goldman R., Gordon A. (1968). Effects of fear, food deprivation, and obesity on eating. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 10 91–97. 10.1037/h0026284
    1. Schaefer J. T., Magnuson A. B. (2014). A review of interventions that promote eating by internal cues. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 114 734–760. 10.1016/j.jand.2013.12.024
    1. Seguias L., Tapper K. (2018). The effect of mindful eating on subsequent intake of a high calorie snack. Appetite 121 93–100. 10.1016/j.appet.2017.10.041
    1. Shapiro J. R., Woolson S. L., Hamer R. M., Kalarchian M. A., Marcus M. D., Bulik C. M. (2007). Evaluating binge eating disorder in children: development of the children’s binge eating disorder scale (C-BEDS). Int. J. Eat. Disord. 40 82–89. 10.1002/eat.20318
    1. Singh S. P., Lewis R. L., Barto A. G., Sorg J. (2010). Intrinsically motivated reinforcement learning: an evolutionary perspective. IEEE Trans. Auton. Ment. Dev. 2 70–82. 10.1109/TAMD.2010.2051031
    1. Sinha R., Jastreboff A. M. (2013). Stress as a common risk factor for obesity and addiction. Biol. Psychiatry 73 827–835. 10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.01.032
    1. Skinner B. F. (1963). Operant behavior. Am. Psychol. 18 503–515. 10.1037/h0045185
    1. Smink F. R. E., Van Hoeken D., Hoek H. W. (2012). Epidemiology of eating disorders: incidence, prevalence and mortality rates. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 14 406–414. 10.1007/s11920-012-0282-y
    1. Smyth J. M., Wonderlich S. A., Heron K. E., Sliwinski M. J., Crosby R. D., Mitchell J. E., et al. (2007). Daily and momentary mood and stress are associated with binge eating and vomiting in bulimia nervosa patients in the natural environment. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 75 629–638. 10.1037/0022-006X.75.4.629
    1. Spahlholz J., Baer N., König H. H., Riedel-Heller S. G., Luck-Sikorski C. (2016). Obesity and discrimination: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Obes. Rev. 17 43–55. 10.1111/obr.12343
    1. Stice E., Burger K. S., Yokum S. (2013). Relative ability of fat and sugar tastes to activate reward, gustatory, and somatosensory regions1-3. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 98 1377–1384. 10.3945/ajcn.113.069443
    1. Stice E., Marti C. N., Shaw H., Jaconis M. (2009). An 8-year longitudinal study of the natural history of threshold, subthreshold, and partial eating disorders from a community sample of adolescents. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 118 587–597. 10.1037/a0016481
    1. Stroebe W. (2008). Dieting, Overweight, and Obesity: Self-Regulation in a Food-Rich Environment. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 10.1037/11753-000
    1. Stunkard A. J., Messick S. (1985). The three-factor eating questionnaire to measure dietary restraint, disinhibition and hunger. J. Psychosom. Res. 29 71–83. 10.1016/0022-3999(85)90010-8
    1. Tantleff-Dunn S., Barnes R. D., Jessica G. L. (2011). It’s not just a “Woman Thing:” the current state of normative discontent. Eat. Disord. 19 392–402. 10.1080/10640266.2011.609088
    1. Tapper K. (2018). Mindfulness and craving: effects and mechanisms. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 59 101–117. 10.1016/j.cpr.2017.11.003
    1. Tylka T. L., Annunziato R. A., Burgard D., Daníelsdóttir S., Shuman E., Davis C., et al. (2014). The weight-inclusive versus weight-normative approach to health: evaluating the evidence for prioritizing well-being over weight loss. J. Obes. 2014:983495. 10.1155/2014/983495
    1. Vainik U., Neseliler S., Konstabel K., Fellows L. K., Dagher A. (2015). Eating traits questionnaires as a continuum of a single concept. Uncontrolled eating. Appetite 90 229–239. 10.1016/j.appet.2015.03.004
    1. Van Dyke N., Drinkwater E. J. (2014). Relationships between intuitive eating and health indicators: literature review. Public Health Nutr. 17 1757–1766. 10.1017/S1368980013002139
    1. van Lutterveld R., Houlihan S. D., Pal P., Sacchet M. D., McFarlane-Blake C., Patel P. R., et al. (2017). Source-space eeg neurofeedback links subjective experience with brain activity during effortless awareness meditation. Neuroimage 151 117–127. 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.02.047
    1. van Strien T., Frijters J. E. R., Bergers G. P. A., Defares P. B. (1986). The dutch eating behavior questionnaire (DEBQ) for assessment of restrained, emotional, and external eating behavior. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 5 295–315.
    1. van Strien T., Konttinen H., Homberg J. R., Engels R. C. M. E., Winkens L. H. H. (2016). Emotional eating as a mediator between depression and weight gain. Appetite 100 216–224. 10.1016/j.appet.2016.02.034
    1. Vohs K. D., Baumeister R. F., Ciarocco N. J. (2005). Self-regulation and self-presentation: regulatory resource depletion impairs impression management and effortful self-presentation depletes regulatory resources. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 88 632–657. 10.1037/0022-3514.88.4.632
    1. Vohs K. D., Heatherton T. F. (2000). Self-regulatory failure: a resource-depletion approach. Psychol. Sci. 11 249–254. 10.1111/1467-9280.00250
    1. Volkow N. D., Wang G.-J., Fowler J. S., Telang F. (2008). Overlapping neuronal circuits in addiction and obesity: evidence of systems pathology. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 363 3191–3200. 10.1098/rstb.2008.0107
    1. Weingarten H. P., Elston D. (1991). Food cravings in a college population. Appetite 17 167–175. 10.1016/0195-6663(91)90019-O
    1. Whale K., Gillison F. B., Smith P. C. (2014). Are you still on that stupid diet?: women’s experiences of societal pressure and support regarding weight loss, and attitudes towards health policy intervention. J. Health Psychol. 19 1536–1546. 10.1177/1359105313495072
    1. Willner P., Benton D., Brown E., Cheeta S., Davies G., Morgan J., et al. (1998). Depression” increases “craving” for sweet rewards in animal and human models of depression and craving. Psychopharmacology 136 272–283. 10.1007/s002130050566
    1. Wing R. R., Hill J. O. (2001). Successful weight loss maintenance. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 21 323–341.
    1. Wing R. R., Phelan S. (2005). Long-term weight loss maintenance. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 82 222S–225S. 10.1093/ajcn/82.1.222S
    1. Wing R. R., Tate D. F., Gorin A. A., Raynor H. A., Fava J. L. (2006). A self-regulation program for maintenance of weight loss. N. Engl. J. Med. 355 1563–1571. 10.1056/NEJMoa061883
    1. Ziauddeen H., Farooqi I. S., Fletcher P. C. (2012). Obesity and the brain: how convincing is the addiction model? Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 13 279–286. 10.1038/nrn3212/10.1038/nrn3212

Source: PubMed

Спонсоры и соавторы

Заболевания

Медикаментозные вмешательства

Подписаться