COVID-19: A review of the proposed pharmacological treatments

Sarah Lam, Andrew Lombardi, Aviv Ouanounou, Sarah Lam, Andrew Lombardi, Aviv Ouanounou

Abstract

The emerging pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) presents an unprecedented challenge for healthcare systems globally. The clinical course of COVID-19 and its ability to rapidly create widespread infection has major implications, warranting vigorous infection prevention and control measures. As the confirmed number of cases has surpassed 5.6 million worldwide and continues to grow, the potential severity of the disease and its deadly complications requires urgent development of novel therapeutic agents to both prevent and treat COVID-19. Although vaccines and specific drug therapies have yet to be discovered, ongoing research and clinical trials are being conducted to investigate the efficacy of repurposed drugs for treating COVID-19. In the present review, the drug candidates that have been suggested to treat COVID-19 will be discussed. These include anti-viral agents (remdesivir, ribavirin, lopinavir-ritonavir, favipiravir, chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, oseltamivir, umifenovir), immunomodulatory agents (tocilizumab, interferons, plasma transfusions), and adjunctive agents (azithromycin, corticosteroids), among other miscellaneous agents. The mechanisms of action and further pharmacological properties will be explored, with a particular focus on the evidence-based safety and efficacy of each agent.

Keywords: COVID-19; Clinical trials; Coronavirus; Drug targets; Mechanism of action; SARS-CoV-2.

Conflict of interest statement

None.

Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Mechanisms of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 infection cycle and various drug candidates for treatment of COVID-19. SARS-CoV-2: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; S protein: Spike protein; TMPRSS2: 2 transmembrane serine protease; ACE2: Angiotensin converting enzyme 2; IL-6: Interleukin 6; RNA: Ribonucleic acid; IFNAR: Interferon-α/β receptor; ISGs: Interferon-stimulated genes; P: Phosphorus; STAT1: Signal transducer and activator of transcription 1.

References

    1. Adaptive COVID-19 Treatment trial (ACTT) - full text view - . 2020. WWW Document, URL. (accessed 5.24.20)
    1. Antithrombotic Therapy Coronavirus disease COVID-19. 2020. WWW Document, URL. (accessed 5.23.20)
    1. Arabi Y.M., Alothman A., Balkhy H.H., Al-Dawood A., AlJohani S., Al Harbi S., Kojan S., Al Jeraisy M., Deeb A.M., Assiri A.M., Al-Hameed F., AlSaedi A., Mandourah Y., Almekhlafi G.A., Sherbeeni N.M., Elzein F.E., Memon J., Taha Y., Almotairi A., Maghrabi K.A., Qushmaq I., Al Bshabshe A., Kharaba A., Shalhoub S., Jose J., Fowler R.A., Hayden F.G., Hussein M.A., Martin G.S., Schoenfeld D.A., Walmsley S.L., Carson S., Harbi S. Al, Jeraisy M. Al, Muhaidib M. Al, Musharaf S., Anizi H. Al, Dael R., AlMazroa M., Asiri A., Memish Z.A., Ghazal S.S., Alfaraj S.H., Harthy A. Al, Sulaiman M. Al, Mady A., Ahmad A., Almekhlafi Ghaleb A., Muhammed R., Samirrai S. Al, Awad S., Cabal R.C., Onazi B. Al, Aljuhani M., Vince M., Enani M. Al, Alqurashi A., Alenezi F., Alkhani N., Thaqafi A., Oraabi O. Al, Rifai J., Elsamadisi P., Medhat S.H., Basher S.A.B., Abduldhaher M., Bajhamoum W., Alahsa S.S., Bashir S., Al-Dossary I., Al-Muhainy Dammam B., Khobar S.S. Al, Alshahrani M.S., Al Jabri A., Farid M., Alaidarous A., Alseraihi W., Shahada H., Taif J.S. Treatment of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome with a combination of lopinavir-ritonavir and interferon-β1b (MIRACLE trial): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. 2018. Trials 19.
    1. Asensio E., Acunzo R., Uribe W., Saad E.B., Sáenz L.C. Recommendations for the measurement of the QT interval during the use of drugs for COVID-19 infection treatment. Updatable in accordance with the availability of new evidence. J. Intervent. Card Electrophysiol. 2020 doi: 10.1007/s10840-020-00765-3.
    1. Baldelli OUP accepted manuscript - Baldelli. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2020 doi: 10.1093/jac/dkaa190.
    1. Belhadi D., Peiffer-Smadja N., Yazdanpanah Y., Mentré F., Laouénan C. A brief review of antiviral drugs evaluated in registered clinical trials for COVID-19. medRxiv. 2020 doi: 10.1101/2020.03.18.20038190. 2020.03.18.20038190.
    1. Bhimraj A., Morgan R.L., Shumaker A.H., Lavergne V., Baden L., Cheng V.C.-C., Edwards K.M., Gandhi R., Muller W.J., O'Horo J.C., Shoham S., Murad M.H., Mustafa R.A., Sultan S., Falck-Ytter Y. Infectious diseases society of America guidelines on the treatment and management of patients with COVID-19. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2020 doi: 10.1093/cid/ciaa478.
    1. Bittmann S. COVID 19: camostat and the role of serine protease entry inhibitor TMPRSS2. J. Regen. Biol. Med. 2020 doi: 10.37191/Mapsci-2582-385X-2(2)-020.
    1. Brown B.L., McCullough J. Treatment for emerging viruses: convalescent plasma and COVID-19. Transfus. Apher. Sci. 2020 doi: 10.1016/j.transci.2020.102790.
    1. Cai Qingxian, Yang M., Liu D., Chen J., Shu D., Xia J., Liao X., Gu Y., Cai Qiue, Yang Y., Shen C., Li X., Peng L., Huang D., Zhang J., Zhang S., Wang F., Liu J., Chen L., Chen S., Wang Z., Zhang Z., Cao R., Zhong W., Liu Y., Liu L. Experimental treatment with favipiravir for COVID-19: an open-label control study. Engineering. 2020 doi: 10.1016/j.eng.2020.03.007.
    1. Cao B., Wang Y., Wen D., Liu W., Wang Jingli, Fan G., Ruan L., Song B., Cai Y., Wei M., Li X., Xia J., Chen N., Xiang J., Yu T., Bai T., Xie X., Zhang L., Li C., Yuan Y., Chen H., Li Huadong, Huang H., Tu S., Gong F., Liu Y., Wei Y., Dong C., Zhou F., Gu X., Xu J., Liu Z., Zhang Y., Li Hui, Shang L., Wang K., Li K., Zhou X., Dong X., Qu Z., Lu S., Hu X., Ruan S., Luo S., Wu J., Peng L., Cheng F., Pan L., Zou J., Jia C., Wang Juan, Liu X., Wang S., Wu X., Ge Q., He J., Zhan H., Qiu F., Guo L., Huang C., Jaki T., Hayden F.G., Horby P.W., Zhang D., Wang C. A trial of lopinavir-ritonavir in adults hospitalized with severe covid-19. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020 doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2001282.
    1. CDC SARS | basics factsheet | CDC. 2017. [WWW Document]. Centers Dis. Control Prev. URL. (accessed 5.23.20)
    1. CDC Management of patients with confirmed 2019-nCoV | CDC. 2020. [WWW Document]. Coronavirus Dis. 2019. URL. (accessed 5.23.20)
    1. Chan J.F.W., Chan K.H., Kao R.Y.T., To K.K.W., Zheng B.J., Li C.P.Y., Li P.T.W., Dai J., Mok F.K.Y., Chen H., Hayden F.G., Yuen K.Y. Broad-spectrum antivirals for the emerging Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. J. Infect. 2013;67:606–616. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2013.09.029.
    1. Chen C., Huang J., Cheng Z., Wu J., Chen S., Zhang Y., Chen B., Lu M., Luo Y., Zhang J., Yin P., Wang X. Favipiravir versus arbidol for COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. medRxiv. 2020 doi: 10.1101/2020.03.17.20037432. 2020.03.17.20037432.
    1. Chen Y., Liu Q., Guo D. Emerging coronaviruses: genome structure, replication, and pathogenesis. J. Med. Virol. 2020 doi: 10.1002/jmv.25681.
    1. Conti P., Ronconi G., Caraffa A., Gallenga C., Ross R., Frydas I., Kritas S. Induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1 and IL-6) and lung inflammation by Coronavirus-19 (COVI-19 or SARS-CoV-2): anti-inflammatory strategies. J. Biol. Regul. Homeost. Agents. 2020;34 doi: 10.23812/CONTI-E.
    1. Coomes OUP accepted manuscript - Coomes. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2020 doi: 10.1093/jac/dkaa171.
    1. Coote K., Atherton-Watson H.C., Sugar R., Young A., MacKenzie-Beevor A., Gosling M., Bhalay G., Bloomfield G., Dunstan A., Bridges R.J., Sabater J.R., Abraham W.M., Tully D., Pacoma R., Schumacher A., Harris J., Danahay H. Camostat attenuates airway epithelial sodium channel function in vivo through the inhibition of a channel-activating protease. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Therapeut. 2009;329:764–774. doi: 10.1124/jpet.108.148155.
    1. Coronavirus Cases in Europe, by country 2020 | Statista. 2020. [WWW Document] (accessed 5.26.20)
    1. COVID-19 and convalescent plasma 2020. [WWW Document] (accessed 5.24.20)
    1. Deng L., Li C., Zeng Q., Liu X., Li X., Zhang H., Hong Z., Xia J. Arbidol combined with LPV/r versus LPV/r alone against Corona Virus Disease 2019: a retrospective cohort study. J. Infect. 2020 doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.03.002.
    1. Dong L., Hu S., Gao J. Discovering drugs to treat coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Drug Discov. Ther. 2020;14:58–60. doi: 10.5582/ddt.2020.01012.
    1. Duan K., Liu B., Li C., Zhang H., Yu T., Qu J., Zhou M., Chen L., Meng S., Hu Yong, Peng C., Yuan M., Huang J., Wang Z., Yu J., Gao X., Wang D., Yu X., Li L., Zhang J., Wu X., Li B., Yu Y., Chen W., Peng Y., Hu Yeqin, Lin L., Liu X., Huang S., Zhou Z., Zhang L., Wang Y., Zhang Z., Deng K., Xia Z., Gong Q., Zhang W., Zheng X., Liu Y., Yang H., Zhou D., Yu D., Hou J., Shi Z., Chen S., Chen Z., Zhang X., Yang X. The feasibility of convalescent plasma therapy in severe COVID-19 patients: a pilot study. medRxiv. 2020 doi: 10.1101/2020.03.16.20036145. 2020.03.16.20036145.
    1. Epidemiological Summary of COVID-19 cases in Canada - . 2020. [WWW Document] (accessed 5.24.20)
    1. Esler M., Esler D. Can angiotensin receptor-blocking drugs perhaps be harmful in the COVID-19 pandemic? J. Hypertens. 2020;38:781–782. doi: 10.1097/HJH.0000000000002450.
    1. FDA Cautions against use of hydroxychloroquine or chloroquine for COVID-19 outside of the hospital setting or a clinical trial due to risk of heart rhythm problems | FDA. 2020. WWW Document. (accessed 7.23.20)
    1. Geleris J., Sun Y., Platt J., Zucker J., Baldwin M., Hripcsak G., Labella A., Manson D., Kubin C., Barr R.G., Sobieszczyk M.E., Schluger N.W. Observational study of hydroxychloroquine in hospitalized patients with covid-19. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020 doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2012410.
    1. Genentech Press releases | Monday, mar 23, 2020. 2020. [WWW Document] (accessed 5.24.20)
    1. Guo Y.R., Cao Q.D., Hong Z.S., Tan Y.Y., Chen S.D., Jin H.J., Tan K. Sen, Wang D.Y., Yan Y. The origin, transmission and clinical therapies on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak- A n update on the status. Mil. Med. Res. 2020 doi: 10.1186/s40779-020-00240-0.
    1. Gurwitz D. Angiotensin receptor blockers as tentative SARS-CoV-2 therapeutics. Drug Dev. Res. 2020 doi: 10.1002/ddr.21656.
    1. Guzik T., Mohiddin S., Dimarco A., Patel V., Savvatis K., Marelli-Berg F., Tomaszewski M., Maffia P., D'Acquisto F., Nicklin S., Marian A., Nosalski R., Murray E., Guzik B., Berry C., Touyz R., Kreutz R., Wang D., Bhella D., Sagliocco O., Crea F., Thomson E., McInnes I. COVID-19 and the cardiovascular system: implications for risk assessment, diagnosis, and treatment options. Cardiovasc. Res. 2020;1–22 doi: 10.1093/cvr/cvaa106.
    1. Helms J., Tacquard C., Severac F., Leonard-Lorant I., Ohana M., Delabranche X. High risk of thrombosis in patients in severe SARS-CoV-2 infection: a multicenter prospective cohort study. Intensive Care Med. 2020 doi: 10.1007/s00134-020-06062-x. epub online.
    1. Hoffmann M., Kleine-Weber H., Schroeder S., Krüger N., Herrler T., Erichsen S., Schiergens T.S., Herrler G., Wu N.H., Nitsche A., Müller M.A., Drosten C., Pöhlmann S. SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell. 2020;181:271–280. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.02.052. e8.
    1. Italy Coronavirus deaths by age | Statista. 2020. [WWW Document] (accessed 5.26.20)
    1. Kalil A.C. Treating COVID-19 - off-label drug use, compassionate use, and randomized clinical trials during pandemics. JAMA, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2020 doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.4742.
    1. Khalili J.S., Zhu H., Mak N.S.A., Yan Y., Zhu Y. Novel coronavirus treatment with ribavirin: groundwork for an evaluation concerning COVID-19. J. Med. Virol. 2020 doi: 10.1002/jmv.25798.
    1. Klok F.A., Kruip M.J.H.A., van der Meer N.J.M., Arbous M.S., Gommers D.A.M.P.J., Kant K.M., Kaptein F.H.J., van Paassen J., Stals M.A.M., Huisman M.V., Endeman H. Incidence of thrombotic complications in critically ill ICU patients with COVID-19. Thromb. Res. 2020 doi: 10.1016/j.thromres.2020.04.013.
    1. Ko W.C., Rolain J.M., Lee N.Y., Chen P.L., Huang C.T., Lee P.I., Hsueh P.R. Arguments in favour of remdesivir for treating SARS-CoV-2 infections. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents. 2020 doi: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105933.
    1. Kupferschmidt K. WHO launches global megatrial of the four most promising coronavirus treatments. 2020. [WWW Document]. Science (80-. )
    1. Ledford H. Hopes rise for coronavirus drug remdesivir. Nature. 2020:1–5. doi: 10.1038/d41586-020-01295-8.
    1. Levi M., Thachil J., Iba T., Levy J.H. Coagulation abnormalities and thrombosis in patients with COVID-19. Lancet Haematol. 2020 doi: 10.1016/S2352-3026(20)30145-9.
    1. Lexicomp for Dentistry 2020. [WWW Document] (accessed 5.24.20)
    1. Li Y., Xie Z., Lin W., Cai W., Wen C., Guan Y., Mo X., Wang J., Wang Y., Peng P., Chen X., Hong W., Xiao G., Liu J., Zhang L., Hu F., Li F., Li F., Zhang F., Deng X., Li L. An exploratory randomized, controlled study on the efficacy and safety of lopinavir/ritonavir or arbidol treating adult patients hospitalized with mild/moderate COVID-19 (ELACOI) medRxiv. 2020 doi: 10.1101/2020.03.19.20038984. 2020.03.19.20038984.
    1. Lian N., Xie H., Lin S., Huang J., Zhao J., Lin Q. Umifenovir treatment is not associated with improved outcomes in patients with coronavirus disease 2019: a retrospective study. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2020 doi: 10.1016/j.cmi.2020.04.026.
    1. Lokugamage K.G., Hage A., Schindewolf C., Rajsbaum R., Menachery V.D. SARS-CoV-2 is sensitive to type I interferon pretreatment. bioRxiv. 2020;21:1–9. doi: 10.1101/2020.03.07.982264.
    1. Lu C.C., Chen M.Y., Chang Y.L. Potential therapeutic agents against COVID-19: what we know so far. J. Chin. Med. Assoc. 2020 doi: 10.1097/JCMA.0000000000000318.
    1. Luo P., Liu Y., Qiu L., Liu X., Liu D., Li J. Tocilizumab treatment in COVID-19: a single center experience. J. Med. Virol. 2020 doi: 10.1002/jmv.25801.
    1. Magagnoli J., Narendran S., Pereira F., Cummings T., Hardin J.W., Sutton S.S., Ambati J. Outcomes of hydroxychloroquine usage in United States veterans hospitalized with Covid-19. medRxiv. 2020 doi: 10.1101/2020.04.16.20065920. 2020.04.16.20065920.
    1. Martinez M.A. Compounds with therapeutic potential against novel respiratory 2019 coronavirus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2020;64 doi: 10.1128/AAC.00399-20.
    1. McKee D.L., Sternberg A., Stange U., Laufer S., Naujokat C. Candidate drugs against SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19. Pharmacol. Res. 2020:104859. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2020.104859.
    1. Mehra M.R., Desai S.S., Ruschitzka F., Patel A.N. Articles Hydroxychloroquine or chloroquine with or without a macrolide for treatment of COVID-19: a multinational registry analysis. Lancet. 2020 doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31180-6.
    1. Menachery V.D., Yount B.L., Josset L., Gralinski L.E., Scobey T., Agnihothram S., Katze M.G., Baric R.S. Attenuation and restoration of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus mutant lacking 2’-O-methyltransferase activity. J. Virol. 2014;88:4251–4264. doi: 10.1128/jvi.03571-13.
    1. NIH Clinical Trial . National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases; 2020. Shows Remdesivir Accelerates Recovery from Advanced COVID-19 | NIH. [WWW Document] (accessed 5.24.20)
    1. No clinical Benefit from use of hydroxychloroquine in hospitalised patients with COVID-19 — RECOVERY Trial. 2020. [WWW Document] (accessed 7.23.20)
    1. Patients taking ACE-i and ARBs who contract COVID-19 Should continue treatment, unless otherwise advised by their physician | American Heart Association. 2020. WWW Document, URL. (accessed 5.24.20)
    1. Rajendran K., Narayanasamy K., Rangarajan J., Rathinam J., Natarajan M., Ramachandran A. Convalescent plasma transfusion for the treatment of COVID-19: systematic review. J. Med. Virol. 2020 doi: 10.1002/jmv.25961.
    1. Remdesivir Clinical Trials 2020. [WWW Document] (accessed 5.24.20)
    1. Rojas M., Rodríguez Y., Monsalve D.M., Acosta-Ampudia Y., Camacho B., Gallo J.E., Rojas-Villarraga A., Ramírez-Santana C., Díaz-Coronado J.C., Manrique R., Mantilla R.D., Shoenfeld Y., Anaya J.M. Convalescent plasma in Covid-19: possible mechanisms of action. Autoimmun. Rev. 2020 doi: 10.1016/j.autrev.2020.102554.
    1. Rosenberg E.S., Dufort E.M., Udo T., Wilberschied L.A., Kumar J., Tesoriero J., Weinberg P., Kirkwood J., Muse A., DeHovitz J., Blog D.S., Hutton B., Holtgrave D.R., Zucker H.A. Association of treatment with hydroxychloroquine or azithromycin with in-hospital mortality in patients with COVID-19 in New York state. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2020 doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.8630.
    1. Rossi G.P., Sanga V., Barton M. Potential harmful effects of discontinuing ACE-inhibitors and ARBs in COVID-19 patients. Elife. 2020;9 doi: 10.7554/eLife.57278.
    1. Rothan H.A., Byrareddy S.N. The epidemiology and pathogenesis of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak. J. Autoimmun. 2020;109 doi: 10.1016/j.jaut.2020.102433.
    1. Russell B., Moss C., Rigg A., Van Hemelrijck M. COVID-19 and treatment with NSAIDs and corticosteroids: should we be limiting their use in the clinical setting? Ecancermedicalscience. 2020;14 doi: 10.3332/ecancer.2020.1023.
    1. Sallard E., Lescure F.X., Yazdanpanah Y., Mentre F., Peiffer-Smadja N. Type 1 interferons as a potential treatment against COVID-19. Antivir. Res. 2020;178 doi: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2020.104791.
    1. Salvi R., Patankar P. Emerging pharmacotherapies for COVID-19. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2020;128:110267. doi: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110267.
    1. Samuel C.E. Antiviral actions of interferons. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2001 doi: 10.1128/CMR.14.4.778-809.2001.
    1. Sanders J.M., Monogue M.L., Jodlowski T.Z., Cutrell J.B. Pharmacologic treatments for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a review. JAMA, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2020 doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.6019.
    1. Sheahan T.P., Sims A.C., Leist S.R., Schäfer A., Won J., Brown A.J., Montgomery S.A., Hogg A., Babusis D., Clarke M.O., Spahn J.E., Bauer L., Sellers S., Porter D., Feng J.Y., Cihlar T., Jordan R., Denison M.R., Baric R.S. Comparative therapeutic efficacy of remdesivir and combination lopinavir, ritonavir, and interferon beta against MERS-CoV. Nat. Commun. 2020;11 doi: 10.1038/s41467-019-13940-6.
    1. Shen K.L., Yang Y.H. Diagnosis and treatment of 2019 novel coronavirus infection in children: a pressing issue. World J. Pediatr. 2020 doi: 10.1007/s12519-020-00344-6.
    1. Sriram K., Insel P.A. Risks of ACE inhibitor and ARB usage in COVID‐19: evaluating the evidence. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. cpt. 2020;1863 doi: 10.1002/cpt.1863.
    1. Statistics Canada . 2020. Epidemiological Summary of COVID-19 Cases in Canada - . 2020-03-26.
    1. Totura A.L., Bavari S. Broad-spectrum coronavirus antiviral drug discovery. Expet Opin. Drug Discov. 2019 doi: 10.1080/17460441.2019.1581171.
    1. A Trial of Remdesivir . 2020. In Adults with Severe COVID-19 - Full Text View - ClinicalTrials. gov [WWW Document] (accessed 5.24.20)
    1. Uno Y. Camostat mesilate therapy for COVID-19. Intern. Emerg. Med. 2020;1–2 doi: 10.1007/s11739-020-02345-9.
    1. Verity R., Okell L.C., Dorigatti I., Winskill P., Whittaker C., Imai N., Cuomo-Dannenburg G., Thompson H., Walker P.G.T., Fu H., Dighe A., Griffin J.T., Baguelin M., Bhatia S., Boonyasiri A., Cori A., Cucunubá Z., FitzJohn R., Gaythorpe K., Green W., Hamlet A., Hinsley W., Laydon D., Nedjati-Gilani G., Riley S., van Elsland S., Volz E., Wang H., Wang Y., Xi X., Donnelly C.A., Ghani A.C., Ferguson N.M. Estimates of the severity of coronavirus disease 2019: a model-based analysis. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2020;3099:1–9. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30243-7.
    1. Wang M., Cao R., Zhang L., Yang X., Liu J., Xu M., Shi Z., Hu Z., Zhong W., Xiao G. Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res. 2020 doi: 10.1038/s41422-020-0282-0.
    1. Wang Y., Zhang D., Du G., Du R., Zhao J., Jin Y., Fu S., Gao L., Cheng Z., Lu Q., Hu Y., Luo G., Wang K., Lu Y., Li H., Wang S., Ruan S., Yang C., Mei C., Wang Yi, Ding D., Wu F., Tang X., Ye X., Ye Y., Liu B., Yang J., Yin W., Wang A., Fan G., Zhou F., Liu Z., Gu X., Xu J., Shang L., Zhang Y., Cao L., Guo T., Wan Y., Qin H., Jiang Y., Jaki T., Hayden F.G., Horby P.W., Cao B., Wang C. Remdesivir in adults with severe COVID-19: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial. Lancet. 2020;395:1569–1578. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31022-9.
    1. World Health Organization . 2020. COVID-19 Update March 13, 2020. [WWW Document] (accessed 5.26.20)
    1. Wu R., Wang L., Kuo H.-C.D., Shannar A., Peter R., Chou P.J., Li S., Hudlikar R., Liu X., Liu Z., Poiani G.J., Amorosa L., Brunetti L., Kong A.-N. An update on current therapeutic drugs treating COVID-19. Curr. Pharmacol. reports. 2020:1–15. doi: 10.1007/s40495-020-00216-7.
    1. Xu X., Han M., Li T., Sun W., Wang D., Fu B., Zhou Y., Zheng X., Yang Y., Li X., Zhang X., Pan A., Wei H. Effective treatment of severe COVID-19 patients with tocilizumab. chinaXiv. 2020;117:1–12. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2005615117.
    1. Yang Z., Liu Jialong, Zhou Y., Zhao X., Zhao Q., Liu Jing. The effect of corticosteroid treatment on patients with coronavirus infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Infect. 2020 doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.03.062.
    1. Yousefi B., Valizadeh S., Ghaffari H., Vahedi A., Karbalaei M., Eslami M. A global treatments for coronaviruses including COVID-19. J. Cell. Physiol. 2020 doi: 10.1002/jcp.29785.
    1. Zhang S., Li L., Shen A., Chen Y., Qi Z. Rational use of tocilizumab in the treatment of novel coronavirus pneumonia. Clin. Drug Invest. 2020 doi: 10.1007/s40261-020-00917-3.
    1. Zhang C., Wu Z., Li J.W., Zhao H., Wang G.Q. The cytokine release syndrome (CRS) of severe COVID-19 and Interleukin-6 receptor (IL-6R) antagonist Tocilizumab may be the key to reduce the mortality. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents. 2020 doi: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105954.
    1. Zhong H., Wang Y., Zhang Z.-L., Liu Y.-X., Le K.-J., Cui M., Yu Y.-T., Gu Z.-C., Gao Y., Lin H.-W. Efficacy and safety of current therapeutic options for COVID-19 - lessons to be learnt from SARS and MERS epidemic: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pharmacol. Res. 2020 doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2020.104872.
    1. Zhao Q., He Y. Challenges of convalescent plasma therapy on COVID-19. J. Clin. Virol. 2020 doi: 10.1016/j.jcv.2020.104358.
    1. Zhou W., Liu Y., Tian D., Wang C., Wang S., Cheng J., Hu M., Fang M., Gao Y. Potential benefits of precise corticosteroids therapy for severe 2019-nCoV pneumonia. Signal Transduct. Target. Ther. 2020 doi: 10.1038/s41392-020-0127-9.
    1. Zhu Z., Lu Z., Xu T., Chen C., Yang G., Zha T., Lu J., Xue Y. Arbidol monotherapy is superior to lopinavir/ritonavir in treating COVID-19. J. Infect. 2020 doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.03.060.

Source: PubMed

Спонсоры и соавторы

Заболевания

Медикаментозные вмешательства

Подписаться