2019 HRS/EHRA/APHRS/LAHRS expert consensus statement on catheter ablation of ventricular arrhythmias: Executive summary

Edmond M Cronin, Frank M Bogun, Philippe Maury, Petr Peichl, Minglong Chen, Narayanan Namboodiri, Luis Aguinaga, Luiz Roberto Leite, Sana M Al-Khatib, Elad Anter, Antonio Berruezo, David J Callans, Mina K Chung, Phillip Cuculich, Andre d'Avila, Barbara J Deal, Paolo Della Bella, Thomas Deneke, Timm-Michael Dickfeld, Claudio Hadid, Haris M Haqqani, G Neal Kay, Rakesh Latchamsetty, Francis Marchlinski, John M Miller, Akihiko Nogami, Akash R Patel, Rajeev Kumar Pathak, Luis C Saenz Morales, Pasquale Santangeli, John L Sapp Jr, Andrea Sarkozy, Kyoko Soejima, William G Stevenson, Usha B Tedrow, Wendy S Tzou, Niraj Varma, Katja Zeppenfeld, Edmond M Cronin, Frank M Bogun, Philippe Maury, Petr Peichl, Minglong Chen, Narayanan Namboodiri, Luis Aguinaga, Luiz Roberto Leite, Sana M Al-Khatib, Elad Anter, Antonio Berruezo, David J Callans, Mina K Chung, Phillip Cuculich, Andre d'Avila, Barbara J Deal, Paolo Della Bella, Thomas Deneke, Timm-Michael Dickfeld, Claudio Hadid, Haris M Haqqani, G Neal Kay, Rakesh Latchamsetty, Francis Marchlinski, John M Miller, Akihiko Nogami, Akash R Patel, Rajeev Kumar Pathak, Luis C Saenz Morales, Pasquale Santangeli, John L Sapp Jr, Andrea Sarkozy, Kyoko Soejima, William G Stevenson, Usha B Tedrow, Wendy S Tzou, Niraj Varma, Katja Zeppenfeld

Abstract

Ventricular arrhythmias are an important cause of morbidity and mortality and come in a variety of forms, from single premature ventricular complexes to sustained ventricular tachycardia and fibrillation. Rapid developments have taken place over the past decade in our understanding of these arrhythmias and in our ability to diagnose and treat them. The field of catheter ablation has progressed with the development of new methods and tools, and with the publication of large clinical trials. Therefore, global cardiac electrophysiology professional societies undertook to outline recommendations and best practices for these procedures in a document that will update and replace the 2009 EHRA/HRS Expert Consensus on Catheter Ablation of Ventricular Arrhythmias. An expert writing group, after reviewing and discussing the literature, including a systematic review and meta-analysis published in conjunction with this document, and drawing on their own experience, drafted and voted on recommendations and summarized current knowledge and practice in the field. Each recommendation is presented in knowledge byte format and is accompanied by supportive text and references. Further sections provide a practical synopsis of the various techniques and of the specific ventricular arrhythmia sites and substrates encountered in the electrophysiology lab. The purpose of this document is to help electrophysiologists around the world to appropriately select patients for catheter ablation, to perform procedures in a safe and efficacious manner, and to provide follow-up and adjunctive care in order to obtain the best possible outcomes for patients with ventricular arrhythmias.

Keywords: Catheter ablation; Clinical document; Electrical storm; Electroanatomical mapping; Electrocardiogram; Expert consensus statement; Imaging; Premature ventricular complex; Radiofrequency ablation; Ventricular arrhythmia; Ventricular tachycardia.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Monomorphic (a), pleomorphic (b), and polymorphic (c) VT. Reproduced with permission of the Heart Rhythm Society from Aliot et al. EHRA/HRS expert consensus on catheter ablation of ventricular arrhythmias. Heart Rhythm 2009;6:886–933. VT = ventricular tachycardia
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Congenital heart disease and sustained VT. For further discussion of ICD candidacy, please see PACES/HRS Expert Consensus Statement on the Recognition and Management of Arrhythmias in Adult Congenital Heart Disease [48] and 2012 ACCF/AHA/HRS Focused Update of the 2008 Guidelines for Device-Based Therapy of Cardiac Rhythm Abnormalities [49]. ACA = aborted cardiac arrest; CHD = congenital heart disease; DORV = double outlet right ventricle; ICD = implantable cardioverter defibrillator; TOF = tetralogy of Fallot; VT = ventricular tachycardia
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Examples of 12-lead ECGs of premature ventricular complexes from different LV sites, as corroborated by successful focal ablation. a shows 12-lead ECG patterns of common ventricular arrhythmia origins in patients without SHD [1–9] from the left ventricle. All leads are displayed at the same amplification and sweep speed. These locations are illustrated in b based on 3D reconstruction of a cardiac computed tomography using the MUSIC software that was developed at the University of Bordeaux. The reconstruction shows an anterolateral view of the left ventricle, aorta, and left atrium. Also shown are the coronary arteries (red), the coronary venous system (blue), and the phrenic nerve (green). AIV = anterior interventricular vein; AL PAP = anterolateral papillary muscle; AMC = aortomitral continuity; ECG = electrocardiogram; GCV = great cardiac vein; ant. MA = anterior mitral valve annulus; PM PAP = posteromedial papillary muscle; R/L = right-left; SHD = structural heart disease; SoV = sinus of Valsalva
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
Examples of 12-lead ECGs of premature ventricular complexes from different right ventricular sites, as corroborated by successful focal ablation. All leads are displayed at the same amplification and sweep speed. a shows the 12-lead ECG pattern of common origins of right ventricular arrhythmias in patients without SHD [1–6]. The locations are detailed in a 3D reconstruction of the computed tomography using the MUSIC software that was developed at the University of Bordeaux. The reconstruction shown in b illustrates the septal view of the right ventricle. Indicated are the pulmonary artery, the tricuspid valve annulus, and the right ventricular apex. ECG = electrocardiogram; PA = pulmonary artery; RVOT= right ventricular outflow tract; SHD = structural heart disease; TVA = tricuspid valve annulus
Fig. 5
Fig. 5
Entrainment responses from components of reentrant VT circuit. CL = cycle length; PPI = postpacing interval; VT = ventricular tachycardia. Adapted with permission from Elsevier (Stevenson et al. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997;29:1180–1189)
Fig. 6
Fig. 6
Pacing from the protected isthmus of a VT circuit. Entrainment mapping during VT. The VT CL is 620 ms, and pacing is performed at a CL of 580 ms. A low-voltage electrogram is located in diastole on the recordings of the ablation catheter (Map). The stimulus-QRS interval is 230 ms and matches with the electrogram-QRS interval. The postpacing interval is equal to the VT CL. The stimulus-QRS/VT CL ratio is 0.37, indicating that the catheter is located in the common pathway. CL = cycle length; PPI = postpacing interval; VT = ventricular tachycardia
Fig. 7
Fig. 7
Anatomical boundaries of the LV summit, with the inaccessible [1] and accessible [2] parts. Shown are the left anterior descending artery (LAD), the circumflex artery (Cx), the great cardiac vein (GCV), the anterior interventricular vein (AIV), and the first and second diagonal branch of the LAD (D1, D2)
Fig. 8
Fig. 8
Intraprocedural imaging during ablation of papillary muscle arrhythmias. a Anatomical map of the left ventricle (CARTO, Biosense Webster) showing contact of the ablation catheter (Abl) with the posteromedial papillary muscle (PMPAP). b Intracardiac echocardiogram showing real-time visualization of the ablation catheter during ablation on the anterolateral papillary muscle (ALPAP)
Fig. 9
Fig. 9
Overview of the workflow for catheter ablation of VT in patients with IHD. Not all of these steps might be required, and steps can be performed in a different sequence. For instance, repeat VT induction can be deferred in patients with hemodynamic instability. In addition, the operator might have to adapt to events that arise during the case, for instance, to take advantage of spontaneous initiation of stable VT during substrate mapping and switch to activation mapping. IHD = ischemic heart disease; PES = programmed electrical stimulation; SR = sinus rhythm; VT = ventricular tachycardia
Fig. 10
Fig. 10
Epicardial substrate ablation in a patient with Brugada syndrome and appropriate ICD shocks for VF. Image integration of a preacquired CT with the electroanatomical epicardial substrate map is shown in (A). Purple represents bipolar voltage >1.5 mV. Fractionated potentials (arrows) are tagged with black dots, and a representative example is displayed. Widespread fractionated potentials were recorded from the epicardial aspect of the RVOT extending down into the basal RV body. Ablation lesions are tagged with red dots. Some fractionated potentials could not be ablated due to the proximity of the acute marginal branches of the right coronary artery. Panel (B) shows the significant transient accentuation of the Brugada ECG pattern during the application of radiofrequency energy at one of these sites. CT = computed tomography; ECG = electrocardiogram; ICD = implantable cardioverter defibrillator; PA = pulmonary artery; RA = right atrium; RCA = right coronary artery; RFA = radiofrequency ablation; RV = right ventricle; RVOT = right ventricular outflow tract; VF = ventricular fibrillation
Fig. 11
Fig. 11
Right ventricular voltage maps from cases of moderate (upper row) and advanced (lower row) arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC) are shown. Purple represents a voltage >1.5 mV in the bipolar maps (left and right) and >5.5 mV in the unipolar maps (center); red represents a voltage 10 cm2. Advanced ARVC displays a bipolar/unipolar endocardial low-voltage area of ≥0.23, which is associated with an epicardial arrhythmogenic substrate area of ≤10 cm2. Adapted with permission from Oxford University Press (Berruezo et al. Europace 2017;19:607–616)
Fig. 12
Fig. 12
Anatomical isthmuses (AI) in repaired tetralogy of Fallot according to the surgical approach and variation of the malformation. RV = right ventricular; TA = tricuspid annulus; VSD = ventricular septal defect
Fig. 13
Fig. 13
Factors influencing outcomes post VA ablation. ICD = implantable cardioverter defibrillator; LVAD = left ventricular assist device; VA = ventricular arrhythmia; VT = ventricular tachycardia

References

    1. Aliot EM, Stevenson WG, Almendral-Garrote JM, et al. EHRA/HRS expert consensus on catheter ablation of ventricular arrhythmias: developed in a partnership with the European Heart Rhythm Association (EHRA), a registered branch of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC), and the Heart Rhythm Society (HRS); in collaboration with the American College of Cardiology (ACC) and the American Heart Association (AHA) Heart Rhythm. 2009;6:886–933.
    1. Hosseini SM, Rozen G, Saleh A, et al. Catheter ablation for cardiac arrhythmias: utilization and in-hospital complications, 2000 to 2013. JACC Clin Electrophysiol. 2017;3:1240–1248.
    1. Raatikainen MJP, Arnar DO, Merkely B, Nielsen JC, Hindricks G, Heidbuchel H, Camm J. A decade of information on the use of cardiac implantable electronic devices and interventional electrophysiological procedures in the European Society of Cardiology Countries: 2017 report from the European Heart Rhythm Association. Europace. 2017;19(Suppl. 2):ii1–ii90.
    1. Al-Khatib SM, Stevenson WG, Ackerman MJ, et al. 2017 AHA/ACC/HRS guideline for management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society. Heart Rhythm. 2018;15:e73–e189.
    1. Priori SG, Blomström-Lundqvist C, Mazzanti A, et al. 2015 ESC guidelines for the management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death: the Task Force for the Management of Patients with Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) Europace. 2015;17:1601–1687.
    1. Indik JH, Patton KK, Beardsall M, et al. HRS clinical document development methodology manual and policies: executive summary. Heart Rhythm. 2017;14:e495–e500.
    1. Halperin JL, Levine GN, Al-Khatib SM, et al. Further evolution of the ACC/AHA clinical practice guideline recommendation classification system: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2016;67:1572–1574.
    1. Martinez BK, Baker WL, Konopka A, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in ischemic heart disease. Heart Rhythm 2019.
    1. Yamada T, Kay GN. Anatomical consideration in catheter ablation of idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias. Arrhythm Electrophysiol Rev. 2016;5:203–209.
    1. Della Bella P, Maccabelli G, Carbucicchio C. Anatomical assessment for catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia. In: Auricchio A, editor. Cardiac Imaging in Electrophysiology. London: Springer-Verlag; 2012. pp. 95–104.
    1. Enriquez A, Malavassi F, Saenz LC, Supple G, Santangeli P, Marchlinski FE, Garcia FC. How to map and ablate left ventricular summit arrhythmias. Heart Rhythm. 2017;14:141–148.
    1. Saremi F, Muresian H, Sanchez-Quintana D. Coronary veins: comprehensive CT-anatomic classification and review of variants and clinical implications. Radiographics. 2012;32:E1–E32.
    1. Ho SY. Anatomic insights for catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia. Heart Rhythm. 2009;6(Suppl. 8):S77–S80.
    1. Ho SY, Nihoyannopoulos P. Anatomy, echocardiography, and normal right ventricular dimensions. Heart. 2006;92(Suppl. 1):i2–i13.
    1. Sánchez-Quintana D, Ho SY, Climent V, Murillo M, Cabrera JA. Anatomic evaluation of the left phrenic nerve relevant to epicardial and endocardial catheter ablation: implications for phrenic nerve injury. Heart Rhythm. 2009;6:764–768.
    1. Yamada T, Litovsky SH, Kay GN. The left ventricular ostium: an anatomic concept relevant to idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2008;1:396–404.
    1. McAlpine WA. Heart and Coronary Arteries: An Anatomical Atlas for Clinical Diagnosis, Radiological Investigation, and Surgical Treatment. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1975.
    1. Brugada P, Brugada J, Mont L, Smeets J, Andries EW. A new approach to the differential diagnosis of a regular tachycardia with a wide QRS complex. Circulation. 1991;83:1649–1659.
    1. Wellens HJ, Bar FW, Lie KI. The value of the electrocardiogram in the differential diagnosis of a tachycardia with a widened QRS complex. Am J Med. 1978;64:27–33.
    1. Vereckei A, Duray G, Szenasi G, Altemose GT, Miller JM. New algorithm using only lead aVR for differential diagnosis of wide QRS complex tachycardia. Heart Rhythm. 2008;5:89–98.
    1. Ohe T, Shimomura K, Aihara N, et al. Idiopathic sustained left ventricular tachycardia: clinical and electrophysiologic characteristics. Circulation. 1988;77:560–568.
    1. Dixit S, Gerstenfeld EP, Callans DJ, Marchlinski FE. Electrocardiographic patterns of superior right ventricular outflow tract tachycardias: distinguishing septal and free-wall sites of origin. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2003;14:1–7.
    1. Callans DJ, Menz V, Schwartzman D, Gottlieb CD, Marchlinski FE. Repetitive monomorphic tachycardia from the left ventricular outflow tract: electrocardiographic patterns consistent with a left ventricular site of origin. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;29:1023–1027.
    1. Kanagaratnam L, Tomassoni G, Schweikert R, et al. Ventricular tachycardias arising from the aortic sinus of Valsalva: an under-recognized variant of left outflow tract ventricular tachycardia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37:1408–1414.
    1. Crawford T, Mueller G, Good E, et al. Ventricular arrhythmias originating from papillary muscles in the right ventricle. Heart Rhythm. 2010;7:725–730.
    1. Yamada T, McElderry HT, Okada T, et al. Idiopathic focal ventricular arrhythmias originating from the anterior papillary muscle in the left ventricle. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2009;20:866–872.
    1. Li S, Wang Z, Shan Z, et al. Surface electrocardiography characteristics and radiofrequency catheter ablation of idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias originating from the left infero-septal papillary muscles: differences from those originating from the left posterior fascicle. Europace. 2018;20:1028–1034.
    1. Berruezo A, Mont L, Nava S, Chueca E, Bartholomay E, Brugada J. Electrocardiographic recognition of the epicardial origin of ventricular tachycardias. Circulation. 2004;109:1842–1847.
    1. Daniels DV, Lu YY, Morton JB, et al. Idiopathic epicardial left ventricular tachycardia originating remote from the sinus of Valsalva: electrophysiological characteristics, catheter ablation, and identification from the 12-lead electrocardiogram. Circulation. 2006;113:1659–1666.
    1. Bazan V, Gerstenfeld EP, Garcia FC, et al. Site-specific twelve-lead ECG features to identify an epicardial origin for left ventricular tachycardia in the absence of myocardial infarction. Heart Rhythm. 2007;4:1403–1410.
    1. Valles E, Bazan V, Marchlinski FE. ECG Criteria to identify epicardial ventricular tachycardia in nonischemic cardiomyopathy. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2010;3:63–71.
    1. Bazan V, Bala R, Garcia FC, et al. Twelve-lead ECG features to identify ventricular tachycardia arising from the epicardial right ventricle. Heart Rhythm. 2006;3:1132–1139.
    1. Perez-Rodon J, Martinez-Alday J, Baron-Esquivias G, et al. Prognostic value of the electrocardiogram in patients with syncope: data from the group for syncope study in the emergency room (GESINUR) Heart Rhythm. 2014;11:2035–2044.
    1. Solomon SD, Zelenkofske S, McMurray JJ, et al. Sudden death in patients with myocardial infarction and left ventricular dysfunction, heart failure, or both. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:2581–2588.
    1. Gula LJ, Klein GJ, Hellkamp AS, et al. Ejection fraction assessment and survival: an analysis of the Sudden Cardiac Death in Heart Failure Trial (SCD-HeFT) Am Heart J. 2008;156:1196–1200.
    1. Yoon Y, Ktagawa K, Kato S, et al. Prognostic value of unrecognised myocardial infarction detected by late gadolinium-enhanced MRI in diabetic patients with normal global and regional left ventricular systolic function. Eur Radiol. 2013;23:2101–2108.
    1. Olivotto I, Maron M, Autore C, et al. Assessment and significance of left ventricular mass by cardiovascular magnetic resonance in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;52:559–566.
    1. Desjardins B, Yokokawa M, Good E, et al. Characteristics of intramural scar in patients with nonischemic cardiomyopathy and relation to intramural ventricular arrhythmias. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2013;6:891–897.
    1. Dweck M, Abgral R, Trivieri M, et al. Hybrid magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography with fluorodeoxyglucose to diagnose active cardiac sarcoidosis. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2018;11:94–107.
    1. Piers SR, Tao Q, van Huls van Taxis CF, Schalij MJ, van der Geest RJ, Zeppenfeld K. Contrast-enhanced MRI-derived scar patterns and associated ventricular tachycardias in nonischemic cardiomyopathy: implications for the ablation strategy. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2013;6:875–883.
    1. Brugada J, Aguinaga L, Mont L, Betriu A, Mulet J, Sanz G. Coronary artery revascularization in patients with sustained ventricular arrhythmias in the chronic phase of a myocardial infarction: effects on the electrophysiologic substrate and outcome. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37:529–533.
    1. Nageh M, Kim J, Chen L, Yao JF. Implantable defibrillators for secondary prevention of sudden cardiac death in cardiac surgery patients with perioperative ventricular arrhythmias. J Am Heart Assoc. 2014;3:e000686.
    1. Elsokkari I, Parkash R, Gray C, et al. Effect of coronary revascularization on long-term clinical outcomes in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy and recurrent ventricular arrhythmia. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2018;41:775–779.
    1. Aquaro GD, Pingitore A, Strata E, Di Bella G, Molinaro S, Lombardi M. Cardiac magnetic resonance predicts outcome in patients with premature ventricular complexes of left bundle branch block morphology. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56:1235–1243.
    1. Yokokawa M, Siontis KC, Kim HM, et al. Value of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging and programmed ventricular stimulation in patients with frequent premature ventricular complexes undergoing radiofrequency ablation. Heart Rhythm. 2017;14:1695–1701.
    1. Niwano SY, Wakisaka H, Niwano H, et al. Prognostic significance of frequent premature ventricular contractions originating from the ventricular outflow tract in patients with normal left ventricular function. Heart. 2009;95:1230–1237.
    1. Halperin JL, Levine GN, Al-Khatib SM, et al. Further evolution of the ACC/AHA clinical practice guideline recommendation classification system: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2006;133:1426–1428.
    1. Khairy P, Van Hare GF, Balaji S, et al. PACES/HRS expert consensus statement on the recognition and management of arrhythmias in adult congenital heart disease: developed in partnership between the Pediatric and Congenital Electrophysiology Society (PACES) and the Heart Rhythm Society (HRS). Endorsed by the governing bodies of PACES, HRS, the American College of Cardiology (ACC), the American Heart Association (AHA), the European Heart Rhythm Association (EHRA), the Canadian Heart Rhythm Society (CHRS), and the International Society for Adult Congenital Heart Disease (ISACHD) Heart Rhythm. 2014;11:e102–e165.
    1. Tracy CM, Epstein AE, Darbar D, et al. 2012 ACCF/AHA/HRS focused update of the 2008 guidelines for device-based therapy of cardiac rhythm abnormalities: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Heart Rhythm. 2012;9:1737–1753.
    1. Ling Z, Liu Z, Su L, et al. Radiofrequency ablation versus antiarrhythmic medication for treatment of ventricular premature beats from the right ventricular outflow tract: prospective randomized study. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2014;7:237–243.
    1. Zhang F, Yang B, Chen H, Ju W, Kojodjojo P, Cao K, Chen M. Magnetic versus manual catheter navigation for mapping and ablation of right ventricular outflow tract ventricular arrhythmias: a randomized controlled study. Heart Rhythm. 2013;10:1178–1183.
    1. Krittayaphong R, Sriratanasathavorn C, Dumavibhat C, et al. Electrocardiographic predictors of long term outcomes after radiofrequency ablation in patients with right-ventricular outflow tract tachycardia. Europace. 2006;8:601–606.
    1. Vestal M, Wen MS, Yeh SJ, Wang CC, Lin FC, Wu D. Electrocardiographic predictors of failure and recurrence in patients with idiopathic right ventricular outflow tract tachycardia and ectopy who underwent radiofrequency catheter ablation. J Electrocardiol. 2003;36:327–332.
    1. Miyazawa K, Ueda M, Kondo Y, Hayashi T, Nakano M, Ishimura M, Nakano M, Kobayashi Y. Rapid mapping and differentiation in ventricular outflow tract arrhythmia using non-contact mapping. J Interv Card Electrophysiol. 2017;49:41–49.
    1. Akdeniz C, Gul EE, Celik N, Karacan M, Tuzcu V. Catheter ablation of idiopathic right ventricular arrhythmias in children with limited fluoroscopy. J Interv Card Electrophysiol. 2016;46:355–360.
    1. Morady F, Kadish AH, DiCarlo L, Kou WH, Winston S, deBuitlier M, Calkins H, Rosenheck S, Sousa J. Long-term results of catheter ablation of idiopathic right ventricular tachycardia. Circulation. 1990;82:2093–2099.
    1. Liao Z, Zhan X, Wu S, et al. Idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias originating from the pulmonary sinus cusp: prevalence, electrocardiographic/electrophysiological characteristics, and catheter ablation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;66:2633–2644.
    1. Bogun F, Crawford T, Reich S, Koelling TM, Armstrong W, Good E, Jongnarangsin K, Marine JE, Chugh A, Pelosi F, Oral H, Morady F. Radiofrequency ablation of frequent, idiopathic premature ventricular complexes: comparison with a control group without intervention. Heart Rhythm. 2007;4:863–867.
    1. Chen H, Shehata M, Swerdlow C, et al. Intramural outflow tract ventricular tachycardia: anatomy, mapping, and ablation. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2014;7:978–981.
    1. Teh AW, Reddy VY, Koruth JS, et al. Bipolar radiofrequency catheter ablation for refractory ventricular outflow tract arrhythmias. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2014;25:1093–1099.
    1. Lamba J, Redfearn DP, Michael KA, Simpson CS, Abdollah H, Baranchuk A. Radiofrequency catheter ablation for the treatment of idiopathic premature ventricular contractions originating from the right ventricular outflow tract: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2014;37:73–78.
    1. Calkins H, Kalbfleisch J, El-Atassi R, Langberg J, Morady F. Relation between efficacy of radiofrequency catheter ablation and site of origin of idiopathic ventricular tachycardia. Am J Cardiol. 1993;71:827–833.
    1. Rodriguez LM, Smeets JL, Timmermans C, Wellens HJ. Predictors for successful ablation of right- and left-sided idiopathic ventricular tachycardia. Am J Cardiol. 1997;79:309–314.
    1. Coggins DL, Lee RJ, Sweeney J, et al. Radiofrequency catheter ablation as a cure for idiopathic tachycardia of both left and right ventricular origin. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1994;23:1333–1341.
    1. Wen MS, Yeh SJ, Wang CC, Lin FC, Chen IC, Wu D. Radiofrequency ablation therapy in idiopathic left ventricular tachycardia with no obvious structural heart disease. Circulation. 1994;89:1690–1696.
    1. Movsowitz C, Schwartzman D, Callans DJ, et al. Idiopathic right ventricular outflow tract tachycardia: narrowing the anatomic location for successful ablation. Am Heart J. 1996;131:930–936.
    1. Frey B, Kreiner G, Fritsch S, Veit F, Gossinger HD. Successful treatment of idiopathic left ventricular outflow tract tachycardia by catheter ablation or minimally invasive surgical cryoablation. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2000;23:870–876.
    1. Krebs ME, Krause PC, Engelstein ED, Zipes DP, Miles WM. Ventricular tachycardias mimicking those arising from the right ventricular outflow tract. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2000;11:45–51.
    1. Kumagai K, Fukuda K, Wakayama Y, et al. Electrocardiographic characteristics of the variants of idiopathic left ventricular outflow tract ventricular tachyarrhythmias. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2008;19:495–501.
    1. Latchamsetty R, Yokokawa M, Morady F, et al. Multicenter outcomes for catheter ablation of idiopathic premature ventricular complexes. JACC Clin Electrophysiol. 2015;1:116–123.
    1. Kamakura S, Shimizu W, Matsuo K, et al. Localization of optimal ablation site of idiopathic ventricular tachycardia from right and left ventricular outflow tract by body surface ECG. Circulation. 1998;98:1525–1533.
    1. Yamada T, Yoshida N, Murakami Y, et al. Electrocardiographic characteristics of ventricular arrhythmias originating from the junction of the left and right coronary sinuses of Valsalva in the aorta: the activation pattern as a rationale for the electrocardiographic characteristics. Heart Rhythm. 2008;5:184–192.
    1. Tada H, Naito S, Ito S, et al. Significance of two potentials for predicting successful catheter ablation from the left sinus of Valsalva for left ventricular epicardial tachycardia. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2004;27:1053–1059.
    1. Ouyang F, Fotuhi P, Ho SY, et al. Repetitive monomorphic ventricular tachycardia originating from the aortic sinus cusp: electrocardiographic characterization for guiding catheter ablation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;39:500–508.
    1. Bala R, Garcia FC, Hutchinson MD, et al. Electrocardiographic and electrophysiologic features of ventricular arrhythmias originating from the right/left coronary cusp commissure. Heart Rhythm. 2010;7:312–322.
    1. Tada H, Nogami A, Naito S, et al. Left ventricular epicardial outflow tract tachycardia: a new distinct subgroup of outflow tract tachycardia. Jpn Circ J. 2001;65:723–730.
    1. Baman TS, Ilg KJ, Gupta SK, et al. Mapping and ablation of epicardial idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias from within the coronary venous system. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2010;3:274–279.
    1. Carrigan T, Patel S, Yokokawa M, Schmidlin E, Swanson S, Morady F, Bogun F. Anatomic relationships between the coronary venous system, surrounding structures, and the site of origin of epicardial ventricular arrhythmias. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2014;25:1336–1342.
    1. Santangeli P, Marchlinski FE, Zado ES, et al. Percutaneous epicardial ablation of ventricular arrhythmias arising from the left ventricular summit: outcomes and electrocardiogram correlates of success. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2015;8:337–343.
    1. Nagashima K, Choi EK, Lin KY, et al. Ventricular arrhythmias near the distal great cardiac vein: challenging arrhythmia for ablation. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2014;7:906–912.
    1. Van Herendael H, Garcia F, Lin D, et al. Idiopathic right ventricular arrhythmias not arising from the outflow tract: prevalence, electrocardiographic characteristics, and outcome of catheter ablation. Heart Rhythm. 2011;8:511–518.
    1. Sadek MM, Benhayon D, Sureddi R, et al. Idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias originating from the moderator band: electrocardiographic characteristics and treatment by catheter ablation. Heart Rhythm. 2015;12:67–75.
    1. Tada H, Tadokoro K, Miyaji K, et al. Idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias arising from the pulmonary artery: prevalence, characteristics, and topography of the arrhythmia origin. Heart Rhythm. 2008;5:419–426.
    1. Tada H, Tadokoro K, Ito S, et al. Idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias originating from the tricuspid annulus: prevalence, electrocardiographic characteristics, and results of radiofrequency catheter ablation. Heart Rhythm. 2007;4:7–16.
    1. Santoro F, DiBiase L, Hranitzky P, et al. Ventricular tachycardia originating from the septal papillary muscle of the right ventricle: electrocardiographic and electrophysiological characteristics. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2015;26:145–150.
    1. Sasaki K, Sasaki S, Kimura M, et al. Catheter ablation of ventricular arrhythmias arising from the basal septum of the right ventricle: characteristics and significance of junctional rhythm appearing during ablation. J Interv Card Electrophysiol. 2016;45:159–167.
    1. Yue-Chun L, Wen-Wu Z, Na-Dan Z, et al. Idiopathic premature ventricular contractions and ventricular tachycardias originating from the vicinity of tricuspid annulus: results of radiofrequency catheter ablation in thirty-five patients. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2012;10:12–32.
    1. Yamada T, Yoshida N, Itoh T, Litovsky SH, Doppalapudi H, McElderry HT, Kay GN. Idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias originating from the parietal band: electrocardiographic and electrophysiological characteristics and outcome of catheter ablation. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2017;10:e005099.
    1. Ceresnak SR, Pass RH, Krumerman AK, Kim SG, Nappo L, Fisher JD. Characteristics of ventricular tachycardia arising from the inflow region of the right ventricle. J Electrocardiol. 2012;45:385–390.
    1. Yamada T, Yoshida N, Litovsky SH, Itoh T, Doppalapudi H, Kay GN. Idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias originating from the infundibular muscles: prevalence, electrocardiographic and electrophysiological characteristics, and outcome of catheter ablation. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2018;11:e005749.
    1. Li T, Zhan XZ, Xue YM, et al. Combined approach improves the outcomes of catheter ablation of idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias originating from the vicinity of tricuspid annulus. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2014;37:624–629.
    1. Lian-Pin W, Yue-Chun L, Jing-Lin Z, et al. Catheter ablation of idiopathic premature ventricular contractions and ventricular tachycardias originating from right ventricular septum. PLoS One. 2013;8:e67038.
    1. Enriquez A, Pathak RK, Santangeli P, et al. Inferior lead discordance in ventricular arrhythmias: a specific marker for certain arrhythmia locations. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2017;28:1179–1186.
    1. Doppalapudi H, Yamada T, McElderry HT, Plumb VJ, Epstein AE, Kay GN. Ventricular tachycardia originating from the posterior papillary muscle in the left ventricle: a distinct clinical syndrome. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2008;1:23–29.
    1. Yamada T, Doppalapudi H, McElderry HT, et al. Idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias originating from the papillary muscles in the left ventricle: prevalence, electrocardiographic and electrophysiological characteristics, and results of the radiofrequency catheter ablation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2010;21:62–69.
    1. Yamada T, Doppalapudi H, McElderry HT, et al. Electrocardiographic and electrophysiological characteristics in idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias originating from the papillary muscles in the left ventricle: relevance for catheter ablation. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2010;3:324–331.
    1. Bassil G, Liu CF, Markowitz SM, et al. Comparison of robotic magnetic navigation-guided and manual catheter ablation of ventricular arrhythmias arising from the papillary muscles. Europace. 2018;20(Suppl. 2):ii5–ii10.
    1. Ban JE, Lee HS, Lee DI, et al. Electrophysiological characteristics related to outcome after catheter ablation of idiopathic ventricular arrhythmia originating from the papillary muscle in the left ventricle. Korean Circ J. 2013;43:811–818.
    1. Yokokawa M, Good E, Desjardins B, et al. Predictors of successful catheter ablation of ventricular arrhythmias arising from the papillary muscles. Heart Rhythm. 2010;7:1654–1659.
    1. Rivera S, Ricapito Mde L, Tomas L, et al. Results of cryoenergy and radiofrequency-based catheter ablation for treating ventricular arrhythmias arising from the papillary muscles of the left ventricle, guided by intracardiac echocardiography and image integration. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2016;9:e003874.
    1. Al’Aref SJ, Ip JE, Markowitz SM, et al. Differentiation of papillary muscle from fascicular and mitral annular ventricular arrhythmias in patients with and without structural heart disease. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2015;8:616–624.
    1. Wasmer K, Köbe J, Dechering DG, et al. Ventricular arrhythmias from the mitral annulus: patient characteristics, electrophysiological findings, ablation, and prognosis. Heart Rhythm. 2013;10:783–788.
    1. Kumagai K, Yamauchi Y, Takahashi A, et al. Idiopathic left ventricular tachycardia originating from the mitral annulus. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2005;16:1029–1036.
    1. Tada H, Ito S, Naito S, et al. Idiopathic ventricular arrhythmia arising from the mitral annulus: a distinct subgroup of idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45:877–886.
    1. Yue-Chun L, Cheng Z, Jun H, Jun-Hua C, Jing-Lin Z, Jia-Feng L. Catheter ablation of idiopathic premature ventricular contractions and ventricular tachycardias originating from the vicinity of endocardial and epicardial mitral annulus. PLoS One. 2013;8:e80777.
    1. Yamada T, Doppalapudi H, McElderry HT, Kay GN. Idiopathic mitral annular PVCs with multiple breakouts and preferential conduction unmasked by radiofrequency catheter ablation. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2012;35:e112–e115.
    1. Chen J, Hoff PI, Rossvoll O, et al. Ventricular arrhythmias originating from the aortomitral continuity: an uncommon variant of left ventricular outflow tract tachycardia. Europace. 2012;14:388–395.
    1. Hai JJ, Chahal AA, Friedman PA, et al. Electrophysiologic characteristics of ventricular arrhythmias arising from the aortic mitral continuity-potential role of the conduction system. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2015;26:158–163.
    1. Yamada T, McElderry HT, Doppalapudi H, et al. Idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias originating from the left ventricular summit: anatomic concepts relevant to ablation. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2010;3:616–623.
    1. Mountantonakis SE, Frankel DS, Tschabrunn CM, et al. Ventricular arrhythmias from the coronary venous system: prevalence, mapping, and ablation. Heart Rhythm. 2015;12:1145–1153.
    1. Meininger GR, Berger RD. Idiopathic ventricular tachycardia originating in the great cardiac vein. Heart Rhythm. 2006;3:464–466.
    1. Yamada T, Doppalapudi H, Litovsky SH, McElderry HT, Kay GN. Challenging radiofrequency catheter ablation of idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias originating from the left ventricular summit near the left main coronary artery. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2016;9:e004202.
    1. Yokokawa M, Latchamsetty R, Good E, et al. Ablation of epicardial ventricular arrhythmias from nonepicardial sites. Heart Rhythm. 2011;8:1525–1529.
    1. Jauregui Abularach ME, Campos B, Park KM, et al. Ablation of ventricular arrhythmias arising near the anterior epicardial veins from the left sinus of Valsalva region: ECG features, anatomic distance, and outcome. Heart Rhythm. 2012;9:865–873.
    1. Yokokawa M, Good E, Chugh A, et al. Intramural idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias originating in the intraventricular septum: mapping and ablation. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2012;5:258–263.
    1. Doppalapudi H, Yamada T, Ramaswamy K, Ahn J, Kay GN. Idiopathic focal epicardial ventricular tachycardia originating from the crux of the heart. Heart Rhythm. 2009;6:44–50.
    1. Kawamura M, Gerstenfeld EP, Vedantham V, et al. Idiopathic ventricular arrhythmia originating from the cardiac crux or inferior septum. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2014;7:1152–1158.
    1. Larroussi L, Badhwar N. Ventricular tachycardia arising from cardiac crux: electrocardiogram recognition and site of ablation. Card Electrophysiol Clin. 2016;8:109–113.
    1. Yui Y, Sekiguchi Y, Nogami A, et al. Electrophysiological characteristics and radiofrequency catheter ablation treatment of idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias successfully ablated from the ostium of the coronary sinus. Circ J. 2017;81:1807–1815.
    1. Komatsu Y, Otomo K, Taniguchi H, et al. Catheter ablation of ventricular arrhythmias arising from the right ventricular septum close to the His bundle: features of the local electrogram at the optimal ablation site. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2011;22:878–885.
    1. Yamada T, Plumb VJ, McElderry HT, Doppalapudi H, Epstein AE, Kay GN. Focal ventricular arrhythmias originating from the left ventricle adjacent to the membranous septum. Europace. 2010;12:1467–1474.
    1. Wei HQ, Guo XG, Liu X, et al. Safety and efficacy of catheter ablation of ventricular arrhythmias with para-Hisian origin via a systematic direct approach from the aortic sinus cusp. Heart Rhythm. 2018;15:1626–1633.
    1. Yamauchi Y, Aonuma K, Takahashi A, et al. Electrocardiographic characteristics of repetitive monomorphic right ventricular tachycardia originating near the His-bundle. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2005;16:1041–1048.
    1. Komatsu Y, Taniguchi H, Miyazaki S, et al. Two distinct electrocardiographic forms of idiopathic ventricular arrhythmia originating in the vicinity of the His bundle. Europace. 2012;14:1778–1785.
    1. Enriquez A, Tapias C, Rodriguez D, et al. How to map and ablate parahisian ventricular arrhythmias. Heart Rhythm. 2018;15:1268–1274.
    1. Santangeli P, Hutchinson MD, Supple GE, Callans DJ, Marchlinski FE, Garcia FC. Right atrial approach for ablation of ventricular arrhythmias arising from the left posterior-superior process of the left ventricle. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2016;9:e004048.
    1. Li A, Zuberi Z, Bradfield JS, et al. Endocardial ablation of ventricular ectopic beats arising from the basal inferoseptal process of the left ventricle. Heart Rhythm. 2018;15:1356–1362.
    1. Tavares L, Dave A, Valderrábano M. Successful ablation of premature ventricular contractions originating from the inferoseptal process of the left ventricle using a coronary sinus approach. HeartRhythm Case Rep. 2018;4:371–374.
    1. Latchamsetty RY, Morady M, Kim F, et al. Multicenter outcomes for catheter ablation of idiopathic premature ventricular complexes. JACC Clinical Electrophysiol. 2015;1:116–123.
    1. Singh SN, Fletcher RD, Fisher SG, et al. Amiodarone in patients with congestive heart failure and asymptomatic ventricular arrhythmia: survival trial of antiarrhythmic therapy in congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:77–82.
    1. Mountantonakis SE, Frankel DS, Gerstenfeld EP, et al. Reversal of outflow tract ventricular premature depolarization-induced cardiomyopathy with ablation: effect of residual arrhythmia burden and preexisting cardiomyopathy on outcome. Heart Rhythm. 2011;8:1608–1614.
    1. Zang M, Zhang T, Mao J, Zhou S, He B. Beneficial effects of catheter ablation of frequent premature ventricular complexes on left ventricular function. Heart. 2014;100:787–793.
    1. Lee A, Denman R, Haqqani HM. Ventricular ectopy in the context of left ventricular systolic dysfunction: risk factors and outcomes following catheter ablation. Heart Lung Circ. 2019;28:379–388.
    1. Takemoto M, Yoshimura H, Ohba Y, et al. Radiofrequency catheter ablation of premature ventricular complexes from right ventricular outflow tract improves left ventricular dilation and clinical status in patients without structural heart disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45:1259–1265.
    1. Baman TS, Lange DC, Ilg KJ, et al. Relationship between burden of premature ventricular complexes and left ventricular function. Heart Rhythm. 2010;7:865–869.
    1. Yarlagadda RK, Iwai S, Stein KM, et al. Reversal of cardiomyopathy in patients with repetitive monomorphic ventricular ectopy originating from the right ventricular outflow tract. Circulation. 2005;112:1092–1097.
    1. Wijnmaalen AP, Delgado V, Schalij MJ, et al. Beneficial effects of catheter ablation on left ventricular and right ventricular function in patients with frequent premature ventricular contractions and preserved ejection fraction. Heart. 2010;96:1275–1280.
    1. Sarrazin JF, Labounty T, Kuhne M, et al. Impact of radiofrequency ablation of frequent post-infarction premature ventricular complexes on left ventricular ejection fraction. Heart Rhythm. 2009;6:1543–1549.
    1. El Kadri M, Yokokawa M, Labounty T, et al. Effect of ablation of frequent premature ventricular complexes on left ventricular function in patients with nonischemic cardiomyopathy. Heart Rhythm. 2015;12:706–713.
    1. Haïssaguerre M, Shoda M, Jaïs P, et al. Mapping and ablation of idiopathic ventricular fibrillation. Circulation. 2002;106:962–967.
    1. Knecht S, Sacher F, Wright M, et al. Long-term follow-up of idiopathic ventricular fibrillation ablation: a multicenter study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54:522–528.
    1. Peichl P, Cihák R, Kozeluhová M, Wichterle D, Vancura V, Kautzner J. Catheter ablation of arrhythmic storm triggered by monomorphic ectopic beats in patients with coronary artery disease. J Interv Card Electrophysiol. 2010;27:51–59.
    1. Haïssaguerre M, Extramiana F, Hocini M, et al. Mapping and ablation of ventricular fibrillation associated with long-QT and Brugada syndromes. Circulation. 2003;108:925–928.
    1. Lakkireddy D, Di Biase L, Ryschon K, et al. Radiofrequency ablation of premature ventricular ectopy improves the efficacy of cardiac resynchronization therapy in nonresponders. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60:1531–1539.
    1. Sapp JL, Wells GA, Parkash R, et al. Ventricular tachycardia ablation versus escalation of antiarrhythmic drugs. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:111–121.
    1. Stevenson WG, Wilber DJ, Natale A, et al. Irrigated radiofrequency catheter ablation guided by electroanatomic mapping for recurrent ventricular tachycardia after myocardial infarction: the multicenter thermocool ventricular tachycardia ablation trial. Circulation. 2008;118:2773–2782.
    1. Tanner H, Hindricks G, Volkmer M, et al. Catheter ablation of recurrent scar-related ventricular tachycardia using electroanatomical mapping and irrigated ablation technology: results of the prospective multicenter Euro-VT-study. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2010;21:47–53.
    1. Marchlinski FE, Haffajee CI, Beshai JF, et al. Long-term success of irrigated radiofrequency catheter ablation of sustained ventricular tachycardia: post-approval THERMOCOOL VT trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2016;67:674–683.
    1. Carbucicchio C, Santamaria M, Trevisi N, et al. Catheter ablation for the treatment of electrical storm in patients with implantable cardioverter-defibrillators: short- and long-term outcomes in a prospective single-center study. Circulation. 2008;117:462–469.
    1. Deneke T, Shin D, Lawo T, et al. Catheter ablation of electrical storm in a collaborative hospital network. Am J Cardiol. 2011;108:233–239.
    1. Muser D, Liang JJ, Pathak RK, et al. Long-term outcomes of catheter ablation of electrical storm in nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy compared with ischemic cardiomyopathy. JACC Clin Electrophysiol. 2017;3:767–778.
    1. Kumar S, Fujii A, Kapur S, et al. Beyond the storm: comparison of clinical factors, arrhythmogenic substrate, and catheter ablation outcomes in structural heart disease patients with versus those without a history of ventricular tachycardia storm. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2017;28:56–67.
    1. Nayyar S, Ganesan AN, Brooks AG, Sullivan T, Roberts-Thomson KC, Sanders P. Venturing into ventricular arrhythmia storm: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Heart J. 2013;34:560–569.
    1. Reddy VY, Reynolds MR, Neuzil P, et al. Prophylactic catheter ablation for the prevention of defibrillator therapy. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:2657–2665.
    1. Kuck KH, Schaumann A, Eckhardt L, et al. Catheter ablation of stable ventricular tachycardia before defibrillator implantation in patients with coronary heart disease (VTACH): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2010;375:31–40.
    1. Al-Khatib SM, Daubert JP, Anstrom KJ, et al. Catheter ablation for ventricular tachycardia in patients with an implantable cardioverter defibrillator (CALYPSO) pilot trial. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2015;26:151–157.
    1. Kuck KH, Tilz RR, Deneke T, et al. Impact of substrate modification by catheter ablation on implantable cardioverter–defibrillator interventions in patients with unstable ventricular arrhythmias and coronary artery disease: results from the multicenter randomized controlled SMS (Substrate Modification Study) Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2017;10:e004422.
    1. Littmann L, Svenson RH, Gallagher JJ, et al. Functional role of the epicardium in postinfarction ventricular tachycardia: observations derived from computerized epicardial activation mapping, entrainment, and epicardial laser photoablation. Circulation. 1991;83:1577–1591.
    1. Sosa E, Scanavacca M, d’Avila A, Oliveira F, Ramires JA. Nonsurgical transthoracic epicardial catheter ablation to treat recurrent ventricular tachycardia occurring late after myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;35:1442–1449.
    1. Schmidt B, Chun KR, Baensch D, Antz M, Koektuerk B, Tilz RR, Metzner A, Ouyang F, Kuck KH. Catheter ablation for ventricular tachycardia after failed endocardial ablation: epicardial substrate or inappropriate endocardial ablation? Heart Rhythm. 2010;7:1746–1752.
    1. Di Biase L, Santangeli P, Burkhardt DJ, et al. Endo-epicardial homogenization of the scar versus limited endocardial substrate ablation for the treatment of electrical storms in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60:132–141.
    1. Izquierdo M, Sánchez-Gómez JM, Ferrero de Loma-Osorio A, Martínez A, Bellver A, Peláez A, Núñez J, Núñez C, Chorro J, Ruiz-Granell R. Endo-epicardial versus only-endocardial ablation as a first line strategy for the treatment of ventricular tachycardia in patients with ischemic heart disease. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2015;8:882–889.
    1. Muser D, Santangeli P, Castro SA, et al. Long-term outcome after catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in patients with nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2016;9:e004328.
    1. Proietti R, Essebag V, Beardsall J, et al. Substrate-guided ablation of haemodynamically tolerated and untolerated ventricular tachycardia in patients with structural heart disease: effect of cardiomyopathy type and acute success on long-term outcome. Europace. 2015;17:461–467.
    1. Dinov B, Arya A, Bertagnolli L, et al. Early referral for ablation of scar-related ventricular tachycardia is associated with improved acute and long-term outcomes: results from the Heart Center of Leipzig ventricular tachycardia registry. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2014;7:1144–1151.
    1. Dinov B, Fiedler L, Schönbauer R, et al. Outcomes in catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in dilated nonischemic cardiomyopathy compared with ischemic cardiomyopathy: results from the Prospective Heart Centre of Leipzig VT (HELP-VT) study. Circulation. 2014;129:728–736.
    1. Tokuda M, Tedrow UB, Kojodjojo P, et al. Catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in nonischemic heart disease. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2012;5:992–1000.
    1. Tung R, Vaseghi M, Frankel DS, et al. Freedom from recurrent ventricular tachycardia after catheter ablation is associated with improved survival in patients with structural heart disease: an International VT Ablation Center Collaborative Group study. Heart Rhythm. 2015;12:1997–2007.
    1. Arya A, Bode K, Piorkowski C, et al. Catheter ablation of electrical storm due to monomorphic ventricular tachycardia in patients with nonischemic cardiomyopathy: acute results and its effect on long-term survival. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2010;33:1504–1509.
    1. Hu J, Zeng S, Zhou Q, et al. Can ventricular tachycardia non-inducibility after ablation predict reduced ventricular tachycardia recurrence and mortality in patients with non-ischemic cardiomyopathy? A meta-analysis of twenty-four observational studies. Int J Cardiol. 2016;222:689–695.
    1. Della Bella P, Brugada J, Zeppenfeld K, et al. Epicardial ablation for ventricular tachycardia: a European multicenter study. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2011;4:653–659.
    1. Sacher F, Roberts-Thomson K, Maury P, et al. Epicardial ventricular tachycardia ablation a multicenter safety study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;55:2366–2372.
    1. Cano O, Hutchinson M, Lin D, et al. Electroanatomic substrate and ablation outcome for suspected epicardial ventricular tachycardia in left ventricular nonischemic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54:799–808.
    1. Jefic D, Joel B, Good E, et al. Role of radiofrequency catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in cardiac sarcoidosis: report from a multicenter registry. Heart Rhythm. 2009;6:189–195.
    1. Naruse Y, Sekiguchi Y, Nogami A, et al. Systematic treatment approach to ventricular tachycardia in cardiac sarcoidosis. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2014;7:407–413.
    1. Kumar S, Barbhaiya C, Nagashima K, et al. Ventricular tachycardia in cardiac sarcoidosis: characterization of ventricular substrate and outcomes of catheter ablation. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2015;8:87–93.
    1. Muser D, Santangeli P, Pathak RK, et al. Long-term outcomes of catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in patients with cardiac sarcoidosis. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2016;9:e004333.
    1. Papageorgiou N, Providência R, Bronis K, et al. Catheter ablation for ventricular tachycardia in patients with cardiac sarcoidosis: a systematic review. Europace. 2018;20:682–691.
    1. Kumar S, Androulakis AF, Sellal JM, et al. Multicenter experience with catheter ablation for ventricular tachycardia in lamin A/C cardiomyopathy. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2016;9:e004357.
    1. Cohen TJ, Chien WW, Lurie KG, et al. Radiofrequency catheter ablation for treatment of bundle branch reentrant ventricular tachycardia: results and long-term follow-up. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1991;18:1767–1773.
    1. Blank Z, Dhala A, Deshpande S, Sra J, Jazayeri M, Akhtar M. Bundle branch reentrant ventricular tachycardia: Cumulative experience in 48 patients. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 1993;4:253–262.
    1. Mehdirad AA, Keim S, Rist K, Tchou P. Long-term clinical outcome of right bundle branch radiofrequency catheter ablation for treatment of bundle branch reentrant ventricular tachycardia. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1995;18(12 Pt 1):2135–2143.
    1. Pathak RK, Fahed J, Santangeli P, et al. Long-term outcome of catheter ablation for treatment of bundle branch re-entrant tachycardia. JACC Clin Electrophysiol. 2018;4:331–338.
    1. Narasimhan C, Jazayeri MR, Sra J, et al. Ventricular tachycardia in valvular heart disease: facilitation of bundle-branch reentry by valve surgery. Circulation. 1997;96:4307–4313.
    1. Li YG, Grönefeld G, Israel C, Bogun F, Hohnloser SH. Bundle branch reentrant tachycardia in patients with apparent normal His-Purkinje conduction: the role of functional conduction impairment. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2002;13:1233–1239.
    1. Schmidt B, Tang M, Chun KR, et al. Left bundle branch-Purkinje system in patients with bundle branch reentrant tachycardia: lessons from catheter ablation and electroanatomic mapping. Heart Rhythm. 2009;6:51–58.
    1. Blanck Z, Jazayeri M, Dhala A, Deshpande S, Sra J, Akhtar M. Bundle branch reentry: a mechanism of ventricular tachycardia in the absence of myocardial or valvular dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1993;22:1718–1722.
    1. Chen H, Shi L, Yang B, et al. Electrophysiological characteristics of bundle branch reentry ventricular tachycardia in patients without structural heart disease. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2018;11:e006049.
    1. Nogami A, Naito S, Tada H, et al. Demonstration of diastolic and presystolic Purkinje potentials as critical potentials in a macroreentry circuit of verapamil-sensitive idiopathic left ventricular tachycardia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;36:811–823.
    1. Ouyang F, Cappato R, Ernst S, et al. Electroanatomic substrate of idiopathic left ventricular tachycardia: unidirectional block and macroreentry within the Purkinje network. Circulation. 2002;105:462–469.
    1. Liu Y, Fang Z, Yang B, et al. Catheter ablation of fascicular ventricular tachycardia: long-term clinical outcomes and mechanisms of recurrence. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2015;8:1443–1451.
    1. Nakagawa H, Beckman KJ, McClelland JH, et al. Radiofrequency catheter ablation of idiopathic left ventricular tachycardia guided by a Purkinje potential. Circulation. 1993;88:2607–2617.
    1. Chen M, Yang B, Zou J, et al. Non-contact mapping and linear ablation of the left posterior fascicle during sinus rhythm in the treatment of idiopathic left ventricular tachycardia. Europace. 2005;7:138–144.
    1. Kottkamp H, Chen X, Hindricks G, et al. Idiopathic left ventricular tachycardia: new insights into electrophysiological characteristics and radiofrequency catheter ablation. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1995;18:1285–1297.
    1. Lin D, Hsia HH, Gerstenfeld EP, et al. Idiopathic fascicular left ventricular tachycardia: linear ablation lesion strategy for noninducible or nonsustained tachycardia. Heart Rhythm. 2005;2:934–939.
    1. Tada H, Nogami A, Naito S, et al. Retrograde Purkinje potential activation during sinus rhythm following catheter ablation of idiopathic left ventricular tachycardia. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 1998;9:1218–1224.
    1. Tsuchiya T, Okumura K, Honda T, et al. Significance of late diastolic potential preceding Purkinje potential in verapamil-sensitive idiopathic left ventricular tachycardia. Circulation. 1999;99:2408–2413.
    1. Wen MS, Yeh SJ, Wang CC, Lin FC, Wu D. Successful radiofrequency ablation of idiopathic left ventricular tachycardia at a site away from the tachycardia exit. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;30:1024–1031.
    1. Arya A, Haghjoo M, Emkanjoo Z, et al. Comparison of presystolic Purkinje and late diastolic potentials for selection of ablation site in idiopathic verapamil sensitive left ventricular tachycardia. J Interv Card Electrophysiol. 2004;11:135–141.
    1. Liu Q, Shehata M, Jiang R, et al. Macroreentrant loop in ventricular tachycardia from the left posterior fascicle: new implications for mapping and ablation. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2016;9:e004272.
    1. Guo XG, Liu X, Zhou GB, et al. Clinical, electrocardiographic, and electrophysiological characteristics of left upper septal fascicular ventricular tachycardia. Europace. 2018;20:673–681.
    1. Collins KK, Schaffer MS, Liberman L, et al. Fascicular and nonfascicular left ventricular tachycardias in the young: an international multicenter study. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2013;24:640–648.
    1. Suzuki T, Nakamura Y, Yoshida S, et al. Radiofrequency catheter ablation of idiopathic left anterior fascicular ventricular tachycardia in children. Heart Rhythm. 2014;11:1948–1956.
    1. Fishberger SB, Olen MM, Rollinson NL, Rossi AF. Creation of partial fascicular block: an approach to ablation of idiopathic left ventricular tachycardia in the pediatric population. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2015;38:209–215.
    1. Saul JP, Kanter RJ, Abrams D, et al. PACES/HRS expert consensus statement on the use of catheter ablation in children and patients with congenital heart disease: developed in partnership with the Pediatric and Congenital Electrophysiology Society (PACES) and the Heart Rhythm Society (HRS). Endorsed by the governing bodies of PACES, HRS, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), the American Heart Association (AHA), and the Association for European Pediatric and Congenital Cardiology (AEPC) Heart Rhythm. 2016;13:e251–e289.
    1. Talib AK, Nogami A, Morishima I, et al. Non-reentrant fascicular tachycardia: clinical and electrophysiological characteristics of a distinct type of idiopathic ventricular tachycardia. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2016;9:e004177.
    1. Lopera G, Stevenson WG, Soejima K, et al. Identification and ablation of three types of ventricular tachycardia involving the His-Purkinje system in patients with heart disease. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2004;15:52–58.
    1. Gonzalez RP, Scheinman MM, Lesh MD, Helmy I, Torres V, Van Hare GF. Clinical and electrophysiologic spectrum of fascicular tachycardias. Am Heart J. 1994;128:147–156.
    1. Nogami A. Purkinje-related arrhythmias. Part I: monomorphic ventricular tachycardias. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2011;34:624–650.
    1. Hayashi M, Kobayashi Y, Iwasaki YK, et al. Novel mechanism of postinfarction ventricular tachycardia originating in surviving left posterior Purkinje fibers. Heart Rhythm. 2006;3:908–918.
    1. Bogun F, Good E, Reich S, et al. Role of Purkinje fibers in post-infarction ventricular tachycardia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;48:2500–2507.
    1. Gatzoulis MA, Till JA, Somerville J, Redington AN. Mechanoelectrical interaction in tetralogy of Fallot. QRS prolongation relates to right ventricular size and predicts malignant ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death. Circulation. 1995;92:231–237.
    1. Harrison DA, Harris L, Siu SC, et al. Sustained ventricular tachycardia in adult patients late after repair of tetralogy of Fallot. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;30:1368–1373.
    1. Knauth AL, Gauvreau K, Powell AJ, et al. Ventricular size and function assessed by cardiac MRI predict major adverse clinical outcomes late after tetralogy of Fallot repair. Heart. 2008;94:211–216.
    1. Diller GP, Kempny A, Liodakis E, et al. Left ventricular longitudinal function predicts life-threatening ventricular arrhythmia and death in adults with repaired tetralogy of Fallot. Circulation. 2012;125:2440–2446.
    1. Koyak Z, Harris L, de Groot JR, et al. Sudden cardiac death in adult congenital heart disease. Circulation. 2012;126:1944–1954.
    1. Koyak Z, de Groot JR, Bouma BJ, et al. Sudden cardiac death in adult congenital heart disease: can the unpredictable be foreseen? Europace. 2017;19:401–406.
    1. Deal BJ, Scagliotti D, Miller SM, Gallastegui JL, Hariman RJ, Levitsky S. Electrophysiologic drug testing in symptomatic ventricular arrhythmias after repair of tetralogy of Fallot. Am J Cardiol. 1987;59:1380–1385.
    1. Oechslin EN, Harrison DA, Harris L, et al. Reoperation in adults with repair of tetralogy of Fallot: indications and outcomes. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1999;118:245–251.
    1. Therrien J, Siu SC, Harris L, et al. Impact of pulmonary valve replacement on arrhythmia propensity late after repair of tetralogy of Fallot. Circulation. 2001;103:2489–2494.
    1. Therrien J, Provost Y, Merchant N, Williams W, Colman J, Webb G. Optimal timing for pulmonary valve replacement in adults after tetralogy of Fallot repair. Am J Cardiol. 2005;95:779–782.
    1. Mavroudis C, Deal BJ, Backer CL, Tsao S. Arrhythmia surgery in patients with and without congenital heart disease. Ann Thorac Surg. 2008;86:857–868.
    1. Adamson L, Vohra HA, Haw MP. Does pulmonary valve replacement post repair of tetralogy of Fallot improve right ventricular function? Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg. 2009;9:520–527.
    1. Miyazaki A, Sakaguchi H, Ohuchi H, et al. Efficacy of hemodynamic-based management of tachyarrhythmia after repair of tetralogy of Fallot. Circ J. 2012;76:2855–2862.
    1. Lin YS, Liu PH, Wu LS, Chen YM, Chang CJ, Chu PH. Major adverse cardiovascular events in adult congenital heart disease: a population-based follow-up study from Taiwan. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2014;14:38.
    1. Sabate Rotes A, Connolly HM, Warnes CA, et al. Ventricular arrhythmia risk stratification in patients with tetralogy of Fallot at the time of pulmonary valve replacement. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2015;8:110–116.
    1. Gonska BD, Cao K, Raab J, Eigster G, Kreuzer H. Radiofrequency catheter ablation of right ventricular tachycardia late after repair of congenital heart defects. Circulation. 1996;94:1902–1908.
    1. Morwood JG, Triedman JK, Berul CI, et al. Radiofrequency catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in children and young adults with congenital heart disease. Heart Rhythm. 2004;1:301–308.
    1. Zeppenfeld K, Schalij MJ, Bartelings MM, et al. Catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia after repair of congenital heart disease: electroanatomic identification of the critical right ventricular isthmus. Circulation. 2007;116:2241–2252.
    1. Kriebel T, Saul JP, Schneider H, Sigler M, Paul T. Noncontact mapping and radiofrequency catheter ablation of fast and hemodynamically unstable ventricular tachycardia after surgical repair of tetralogy of Fallot. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;50:2162–2168.
    1. Kapel GF, Reichlin T, Wijnmaalen AP, et al. Left-sided ablation of ventricular tachycardia in adults with repaired tetralogy of Fallot: a case series. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2014;7:889–897.
    1. Kapel GF, Reichlin T, Wijnmaalen AP, et al. Re-entry using anatomically determined isthmuses: a curable ventricular tachycardia in repaired congenital heart disease. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2015;8:102–109.
    1. van Zyl M, Kapa S, Padmanabhan D, et al. Mechanism and outcomes of catheter ablation for ventricular tachycardia in adults with repaired congenital heart disease. Heart Rhythm. 2016;13:1449–1454.
    1. Kapel GF, Sacher F, Dekkers OM, et al. Arrhythmogenic anatomical isthmuses identified by electroanatomical mapping are the substrate for ventricular tachycardia in repaired tetralogy of Fallot. Eur Heart J. 2017;38:268–276.
    1. Sandhu A, Ruckdeschel E, Sauer WH, et al. Perioperative electrophysiology study in patients with tetralogy of Fallot undergoing pulmonary valve replacement will identify those at high risk of subsequent ventricular tachycardia. Heart Rhythm. 2018;15:679–685.
    1. Berruezo A, Acosta J, Fernández-Armenta J, et al. Safety, long-term outcomes and predictors of recurrence after first-line combined endoepicardial ventricular tachycardia substrate ablation in arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy. Impact of arrhythmic substrate distribution pattern. A prospective multicentre study. Europace. 2017;19:607–616.
    1. Jiang H, Zhang X, Yang Q, et al. Catheter ablation for ventricular tachycardia in patients with arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Cardiol. 2016;71:639–649.
    1. Philips B, te Riele AS, Sawant A, et al. Outcomes and ventricular tachycardia recurrence characteristics after epicardial ablation of ventricular tachycardia in arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy. Heart Rhythm. 2015;12:716–725.
    1. Santangeli P, Zado ES, Supple GE, et al. Long-term outcome with catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in patients with arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2015;8:1413–1421.
    1. Philips B, Madhavan S, James C, et al. Outcomes of catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2012;5:499–505.
    1. Bai R, Di Biase L, Shivkumar K, et al. Ablation of ventricular arrhythmias in arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy: arrhythmia-free survival after endo-epicardial substrate based mapping and ablation. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2011;4:478–485.
    1. Garcia FC, Bazan V, Zado ES, Ren JF, Marchlinski FE. Epicardial substrate and outcome with epicardial ablation of ventricular tachycardia in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy/dysplasia. Circulation. 2009;120:366–375.
    1. Dalal D, Jain R, Tandri H, et al. Long-term efficacy of catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in patients with arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;50:432–440.
    1. Verma A, Kilicaslan F, Schweikert RA, et al. Short- and long-term success of substrate-based mapping and ablation of ventricular tachycardia in arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia. Circulation. 2005;111:3209–3216.
    1. Marchlinski FE, Zado E, Dixit S, et al. Electroanatomic substrate and outcome of catheter ablative therapy for ventricular tachycardia in setting of right ventricular cardiomyopathy. Circulation. 2004;110:2293–2298.
    1. Nogami A, Sugiyasu A, Tada H, et al. Changes in the isolated delayed component as an endpoint of catheter ablation in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy: predictor for long-term success. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2008;19:681–688.
    1. Müssigbrodt A, Efimova E, Knopp H, et al. Should all patients with arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy undergo epicardial catheter ablation? J Interv Card Electrophysiol. 2017;48:193–199.
    1. Pokushalov E, Romanov A, Turov A, Artyomenko S, Shirokova N, Karaskov A. Percutaneous epicardial ablation of ventricular tachycardia after failure of endocardial approach in the pediatric population with arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia. Heart Rhythm. 2010;7:1406–1410.
    1. Pappone C, Brugada J, Vicedomini G, et al. Electrical substrate elimination in 135 consecutive patients with Brugada syndrome. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2017;10:e005053.
    1. Brugada J, Pappone C, Berruezo A, et al. Brugada syndrome phenotype elimination by epicardial substrate ablation. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2015;8:1373–1381.
    1. Zhang P, Tung R, Zhang Z, et al. Characterization of the epicardial substrate for catheter ablation of Brugada syndrome. Heart Rhythm. 2016;13:2151–2158.
    1. Nademanee K, Veerakul G, Chandanamattha P, et al. Prevention of ventricular fibrillation episodes in Brugada syndrome by catheter ablation over the anterior right ventricular outflow tract epicardium. Circulation. 2011;123:1270–1279.
    1. Berruezo A, Fernández-Armenta J, Mont L, et al. Combined endocardial and epicardial catheter ablation in arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia incorporating scar dechanneling technique. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2012;5:111–121.
    1. Dukkipati SR, d’Avila A, Soejima K, et al. Long-term outcomes of combined epicardial and endocardial ablation of monomorphic ventricular tachycardia related to hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2011;4:185–194.
    1. Santangeli P, Di Biase L, Lakkireddy D, et al. Radiofrequency catheter ablation of ventricular arrhythmias in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: safety and feasibility. Heart Rhythm. 2010;7:1036–1042.
    1. Ueda A, Fukamizu S, Soejima K, et al. Clinical and electrophysiological characteristics in patients with sustained monomorphic reentrant ventricular tachycardia associated with dilated-phase hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Europace. 2012;14:734–740.
    1. Inada K, Seiler J, Roberts-Thomson KC, et al. Substrate characterization and catheter ablation for monomorphic ventricular tachycardia in patients with apical hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2011;22:41–48.
    1. Igarashi M, Nogami A, Kurosaki K, et al. Radiofrequency catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and apical aneurysm. JACC Clin Electrophysiol. 2018;4:339–350.
    1. Visser CA, Kan G, David GK, Lie KI, Durrer D. Two dimensional echocardiography in the diagnosis of left ventricular thrombus: a prospective study of 67 patients with anatomic validation. Chest. 1983;83:228–232.
    1. Ezekowitz MD, Wilson DA, Smith EO, et al. Comparison of Indium-111 platelet scintigraphy and two-dimensional echocardiography in the diagnosis of left ventricular thrombi. N Engl J Med. 1982;306:1509–1513.
    1. Stratton JR, Lighty GW, Jr, Pearlman AS, Ritchie JL. Detection of left ventricular thrombus by two-dimensional echocardiography: sensitivity, specificity, and causes of uncertainty. Circulation. 1982;66:156–166.
    1. Thanigaraj S, Schechtman KB, Perez JE. Improved echocardiographic delineation of left ventricular thrombus with the use of intravenous second-generation contrast image enhancement. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 1999;12:1022–1026.
    1. Weinsaft JW, Kim HW, Shah DJ, et al. Detection of left ventricular thrombus by delayed-enhancement cardiovascular magnetic resonance prevalence and markers in patients with systolic dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;52:148–157.
    1. Weinsaft JW, Kim RJ, Ross M, et al. Contrast-enhanced anatomic imaging as compared to contrast-enhanced tissue characterization for detection of left ventricular thrombus. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2009;2:969–979.
    1. Siontis KC, Kim HM, Sharaf Dabbagh G, et al. Association of preprocedural cardiac magnetic resonance imaging with outcomes of ventricular tachycardia ablation in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Heart Rhythm. 2017;14:1487–1493.
    1. Zghaib T, Ipek EG, Hansford R, et al. Standard ablation versus magnetic resonance imaging-guided ablation in the treatment of ventricular tachycardia. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2018;11:e005973.
    1. Andreu D, Penela D, Acosta J, et al. Cardiac magnetic resonance-aided scar dechanneling: Influence on acute and long-term outcomes. Heart Rhythm. 2017;14:1121–1128.
    1. Codreanu A, Odille F, Aliot E, et al. Electroanatomic characterization of post-infarct scars comparison with 3-dimensional myocardial scar reconstruction based on magnetic resonance imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;52:839–842.
    1. Desjardins B, Crawford T, Good E, et al. Infarct architecture and characteristics on delayed enhanced magnetic resonance imaging and electroanatomic mapping in patients with postinfarction ventricular arrhythmia. Heart Rhythm. 2009;6:644–651.
    1. Bogun FM, Desjardins B, Good E, et al. Delayed-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging in nonischemic cardiomyopathy: utility for identifying the ventricular arrhythmia substrate. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;53:1138–1145.
    1. Dickfeld T, Tian J, Ahmad G, et al. MRI-guided ventricular tachycardia ablation: integration of late gadolinium-enhanced 3D scar in patients with implantable cardioverter-defibrillators. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2011;4:172–184.
    1. Fernandez-Armenta J, Berruezo A, Andreu D, et al. Three-dimensional architecture of scar and conducting channels based on high resolution ce-CMR: insights for ventricular tachycardia ablation. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2013;6:528–537.
    1. Gupta S, Desjardins B, Baman T, et al. Delayed-enhanced MR scar imaging and intraprocedural registration into an electroanatomical mapping system in post-infarction patients. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2012;5:207–210.
    1. Marra MP, Leoni L, Bauce B, et al. Imaging study of ventricular scar in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy: comparison of 3D standard electroanatomical voltage mapping and contrast-enhanced cardiac magnetic resonance. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2012;5:91–100.
    1. Nakahara S, Vaseghi M, Ramirez RJ, et al. Characterization of myocardial scars: electrophysiological imaging correlates in a porcine infarct model. Heart Rhythm. 2011;8:1060–1067.
    1. Ghannam M, Cochet H, Jais P, et al. Correlation between computer tomography-derived scar topography and critical ablation sites in postinfarction ventricular tachycardia. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2018;29:438–445.
    1. Esposito A, Palmisano A, Antunes S, et al. Cardiac CT with delayed enhancement in the characterization of ventricular tachycardia structural substrate: relationship between CT-segmented scar and electro-anatomic mapping. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2016;9:822–832.
    1. Tian J, Jeudy J, Smith MF, et al. Three-dimensional contrast-enhanced multidetector CT for anatomic, dynamic, and perfusion characterization of abnormal myocardium to guide ventricular tachycardia ablations. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2010;3:496–504.
    1. Yamashita S, Sacher F, Mahida S, et al. Image integration to guide catheter ablation in scar-related ventricular tachycardia. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2016;27:699–708.
    1. Komatsu Y, Cochet H, Jadidi A, et al. Regional myocardial wall thinning at multidetector computed tomography correlates to arrhythmogenic substrate in postinfarction ventricular tachycardia: assessment of structural and electrical substrate. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2013;6:342–350.
    1. Dickfeld T, Lei P, Dilsizian V, et al. Integration of three-dimensional scar maps for ventricular tachycardia ablation with positron emission tomography-computed tomography. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2008;1:73–82.
    1. Tian J, Smith MF, Chinnadurai P, et al. Clinical application of PET/CT fusion imaging for three-dimensional myocardial scar and left ventricular anatomy during ventricular tachycardia ablation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2009;20:567–604.
    1. Andreu D, Ortiz-Perez JT, Boussy T, et al. Usefulness of contrast-enhanced cardiac magnetic resonance in identifying the ventricular arrhythmia substrate and the approach needed for ablation. Eur Heart J. 2014;35:1316–1326.
    1. Soto-Iglesias D, Acosta J, Penela D, et al. Image-based criteria to identify the presence of epicardial arrhythmogenic substrate in patients with transmural myocardial infarction. Heart Rhythm. 2018;15:814–821.
    1. Wutzler A, Mueller A, Loehr L, et al. Minimal and deep sedation during ablation of ventricular tachycardia. Int J Cardiol. 2014;172:161–164.
    1. Servatius H, Höfeler T, Hoffmann BA, et al. Propofol sedation administered by cardiologists for patients undergoing catheter ablation for ventricular tachycardia. Europace. 2016;18:1245–1251.
    1. Nazer B, Woods C, Dewland T, Moyers B, Badhwar N, Gerstenfeld EP. Importance of ventricular tachycardia induction and mapping for patients referred for epicardial ablation. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2015;38:1333–1342.
    1. Sharma PS, Padala SK, Gunda S, Koneru JN, Ellenbogen KA. Vascular complications during catheter ablation of cardiac arrhythmias: a comparison between vascular ultrasound guided access and conventional vascular access. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2016;27:1160–1166.
    1. Tanaka-Esposito CC, Chung MK, Abraham JM, Cantillon DJ, Abi-Saleh B, Tchou PJ. Real-time ultrasound guidance reduces total and major vascular complications in patients undergoing pulmonary vein antral isolation on therapeutic warfarin. J Interv Card Electrophysiol. 2013;37:163–168.
    1. Yamagata K, Wichterle D, Roubíček T, et al. Ultrasound-guided versus conventional femoral venipuncture for catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation: a multicentre randomized efficacy and safety trial (ULTRA-FAST trial) Europace. 2018;20:1107–1114.
    1. Sobolev M, Shiloh AL, Di Biase L, Slovut DP. Ultrasound-guided cannulation of the femoral vein in electrophysiological procedures: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Europace. 2017;19:850–855.
    1. Seto AH, Abu-Fadel MS, Sparling JM, et al. Real-time ultrasound guidance facilitates femoral arterial access and reduces vascular complications: FAUST (Femoral Arterial Access With Ultrasound Trial) JACC Cardiovasc Interv. 2010;3:751–758.
    1. Miller MA, Dukkipati SR, Mittnacht AJ, et al. Activation and entrainment mapping of hemodynamically unstable ventricular tachycardia using a percutaneous left ventricular assist device. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011;58:1363–1371.
    1. Reddy YM, Chinitz L, Mansour M, et al. Percutaneous left ventricular assist devices in ventricular tachycardia ablation: multicenter experience. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2014;7:244–250.
    1. Baratto F, Pappalardo F, Oloriz T, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for hemodynamic support of ventricular tachycardia ablation. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2016;9:e004492.
    1. Kusa S, Miller MA, Whang W, et al. Outcomes of ventricular tachycardia ablation using percutaneous left ventricular assist devices. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2017;10:e004717.
    1. Mathuria N, Wu G, Rojas-Delgado F, et al. Outcomes of pre-emptive and rescue use of percutaneous left ventricular assist device in patients with structural heart disease undergoing catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia. J Interv Card Electrophysiol. 2017;48:27–34.
    1. Turagam MK, Vuddanda V, Atkins D, et al. Hemodynamic support in ventricular tachycardia ablation: an International VT Ablation Center Collaborative Group Study. JACC Clin Electrophysiol. 2017;3:1534–1543.
    1. Enriquez A, Liang J, Gentile J, et al. Outcomes of rescue cardiopulmonary support for periprocedural acute hemodynamic decompensation in patients undergoing catheter ablation of electrical storm. Heart Rhythm. 2018;15:75–80.
    1. Calkins H, Epstein A, Packer D, et al. Catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in patients with structural heart disease using cooled radiofrequency energy: results of a prospective multicenter study. Cooled RF Multi Center Investigators Group. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;35:1905–1914.
    1. Siontis KC, Jamé S, Sharaf Dabbagh G, et al. Thromboembolic prophylaxis protocol with warfarin after radiofrequency catheter ablation of infarct-related ventricular tachycardia. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2018;29:584–590.
    1. Di Biase L, Burkhardt JD, Lakkireddy D, et al. Ablation of stable VTs versus substrate ablation in ischemic cardiomyopathy: the VISTA randomized multicenter trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;66:2872–2882.
    1. Volkmer M, Ouyang F, Deger F, et al. Substrate mapping vs. tachycardia mapping using CARTO in patients with coronary artery disease and ventricular tachycardia: impact on outcome of catheter ablation. Europace. 2006;8:968–976.
    1. Makimoto H, Nakajima I, Miyamoto K, et al. Clinical impact of mapping strategies for treatment of ventricular tachycardias in patients with structural heart disease. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2015;38:630–640.
    1. Carbucicchio C, Ahmad Raja N, Di Biase L, et al. High-density substrate-guided ventricular tachycardia ablation: role of activation mapping in an attempt to improve procedural effectiveness. Heart Rhythm. 2013;10:1850–1858.
    1. Briceño DF, Romero J, Villablanca PA, et al. Long-term outcomes of different ablation strategies for ventricular tachycardia in patients with structural heart disease: systematic review and meta-analysis. Europace. 2018;20:104–115.
    1. Kumar S, Baldinger SH, Romero J, et al. Substrate-based ablation versus ablation guided by activation and entrainment mapping for ventricular tachycardia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2016;27:1437–1447.
    1. Acosta J, Penela D. Andreu D, et al. Multielectrode vs. point-by-point mapping for ventricular tachycardia substrate ablation: a randomized study. Europace. 2018;20:512–519.
    1. Berte B, Relan J, Sacher F, et al. Impact of electrode type on mapping of scar-related VT. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2015;26:1213–1223.
    1. Yamashita S, Cochet H, Sacher F, et al. Impact of new technologies and approaches for post-myocardial infarction ventricular tachycardia ablation during long-term follow-up. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2016;9:e003901.
    1. Hutchinson MD, Gerstenfeld EP, Desjardins B, et al. Endocardial unipolar voltage mapping to detect epicardial ventricular tachycardia substrate in patients with nonischemic left ventricular cardiomyopathy. Circ Arrhythmia Electrophysiol. 2011;4:49–55.
    1. Polin GM, Haqqani H, Tzou W, et al. Endocardial unipolar voltage mapping to identify epicardial substrate in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy/dysplasia. Heart Rhythm. 2011;8:76–83.
    1. Chopra N, Tokuda M, Ng J, et al. Relation of the unipolar low-voltage penumbra surrounding the endocardial low-voltage scar to ventricular tachycardia circuit sites and ablation outcomes in ischemic cardiomyopathy. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2014;25:602–608.
    1. Soto-Becerra R, Bazan V, Bautista W, et al. Ventricular tachycardia in the setting of Chagasic cardiomyopathy. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2017;10:e004950.
    1. Hoffmayer KS, Dewland TA, Hsia HH, et al. Safety of radiofrequency catheter ablation without coronary angiography in aortic cusp ventricular arrhythmias. Heart Rhythm. 2014;11:1117–1121.
    1. Hachiya H, Aonuma K, Yamauchi Y, Igawa M, Nogami A, Iesaka Y. How to diagnose, locate, and ablate coronary cusp ventricular tachycardia. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2002;13:551–556.
    1. Yamada T, McElderry HT, Doppalapudi H, et al. Idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias originating from the aortic root prevalence, electrocardiographic and electrophysiologic characteristics, and results of radiofrequency catheter ablation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;52:139–147.
    1. D’Avila A, Gutierrez P, Scanavacca M, et al. Effects of radiofrequency pulses delivered in the vicinity of the coronary arteries: implications for nonsurgical transthoracic epicardial catheter ablation to treat ventricular tachycardia. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2002;25:1488–1495.
    1. Good E, Desjardins B, Jongnarangsin K, et al. Ventricular arrhythmias originating from a papillary muscle in patients without prior infarction: a comparison with fascicular arrhythmias. Heart Rhythm. 2008;5:1530–1537.
    1. Proietti R, Rivera S, Dussault C, et al. Intracardiac echo-facilitated 3D electroanatomical mapping of ventricular arrhythmias from the papillary muscles: assessing the ‘fourth dimension’ during ablation. Europace. 2017;19:21–28.
    1. Peichl P, Baran J, Wichterle D, et al. The tip of the muscle is a dominant location of ventricular ectopy originating from papillary muscles in the left ventricle. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2018;29:64–70.
    1. Lee A, Hamilton-Craig C, Denman R, Haqqani HM. Catheter ablation of papillary muscle arrhythmias: implications of mitral valve prolapse and systolic dysfunction. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2018;41:750–758.
    1. Ren JF, Marchlinski FE. Early detection of iatrogenic pericardial effusion: importance of intracardiac echocardiography. JACC Cardiovasc Interv. 2010;3:127.
    1. Filgueiras-Rama D, de Torres-Alba F, Castrejón-Castrejón S, et al. Utility of intracardiac echocardiography for catheter ablation of complex cardiac arrhythmias in a medium-volume training center. Echocardiography. 2015;32:660–670.
    1. Weintraub AR, Schwartz SL, Smith J, Hsu TL, Pandian NG. Intracardiac two-dimensional echocardiography in patients with pericardial effusion and cardiac tamponade. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 1991;4:571–576.
    1. Bala R, Ren JF, Hutchinson MD, et al. Assessing epicardial substrate using intracardiac echocardiography during VT ablation. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2011;4:667–673.
    1. Peichl P, Wichterle D, Cihak R, Aldhoon B, Kautzner J. Catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in the presence of an old endocavitary thrombus guided by intracardiac echocardiography. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2016;39:581–587.
    1. Khaykin Y, Skanes A, Whaley B, et al. Real-time integration of 2D intracardiac echocardiography and 3D electroanatomical mapping to guide ventricular tachycardia ablation. Heart Rhythm. 2008;5:1396–1402.
    1. Sporton SC, Earley MJ, Nathan AW, Schilling RJ. Electroanatomic versus fluoroscopic mapping for catheter ablation procedures: a prospective randomized study. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2004;15:310–315.
    1. Earley MJ, Showkathali R, Alzetani M, et al. Radiofrequency ablation of arrhythmias guided by non-fluoroscopic catheter location: a prospective randomized trial. Eur Heart J. 2006;27:1223–1229.
    1. Marchlinski FE, Callans DJ, Gottlieb CD, Zado E. Linear ablation lesions for control of unmappable ventricular tachycardia in patients with ischemic and nonischemic cardiomyopathy. Circulation. 2000;101:1288–1296.
    1. Khongphatthanayothin A, Kosar E, Nademanee K. Nonfluoroscopic three-dimensional mapping for arrhythmia ablation: tool or toy? J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2000;11:239–243.
    1. Reithmann C, Hahnefeld A, Remp T, et al. Electroanatomic mapping of endocardial right ventricular activation as a guide for catheter ablation in patients with arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2003;26:1308–1316.
    1. Zeppenfeld K, Schalij MJ, Bartelings MM, et al. Catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia after repair of congenital heart disease. Circulation. 2007;116:2241–2252.
    1. Dinov B, Schoenbauer R, Wojdyla-Horodynska A, et al. Long-term efficacy of single procedure remote magnetic catheter navigation for ablation of ischemic ventricular tachycardia: a retrospective study. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2012;23:499–505.
    1. Szili-Torok T, Schwagten B, Akca F, et al. Catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardias using remote magnetic navigation: a consecutive case-control study. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2012;23:948–954.
    1. Akca F, Theuns DA, Abkenari LD, de Groot NM, Jordaens L, Szili-Torok T. Outcomes of repeat catheter ablation using magnetic navigation or conventional ablation. Europace. 2013;15:1426–1431.
    1. Bauernfeind T, Akca F, Schwagten B, et al. The magnetic navigation system allows safety and high efficacy for ablation of arrhythmias. Europace. 2011;13:1015–1021.
    1. Jais P, Maury P, Khairy P, et al. Elimination of local abnormal ventricular activities: a new end point for substrate modification in patients with scar-related ventricular tachycardia. Circulation. 2012;125:2184–2196.
    1. Tilz RR, Makimoto H, Lin T, et al. Electrical isolation of a substrate after myocardial infarction: a novel ablation strategy for unmappable ventricular tachycardias–feasibility and clinical outcome. Europace. 2014;16:1040–1052.
    1. Tzou WS, Frankel DS, Hegeman T, et al. Core isolation of critical arrhythmia elements for treatment of multiple scar-based ventricular tachycardias. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2015;8:353–361.
    1. Silberbauer J, Oloriz T, Maccabelli G, et al. Noninducibility and late potential abolition: a novel combined prognostic procedural end point for catheter ablation of postinfarction ventricular tachycardia. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2014;7:424–435.
    1. Wolf M, Sacher F, Cochet H, et al. Long-term outcome of substrate modification in ablation of post-myocardial infarction ventricular tachycardia. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2018;11:e005635.
    1. Berruezo A, Fernandez-Armenta J, Andreu D, et al. Scar dechanneling: new method for scar-related left ventricular tachycardia substrate ablation. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2015;8:326–336.
    1. Porta-Sanchez A, Jackson N, Lukac P, et al. Multicenter study of ischemic ventricular tachycardia ablation with decrement-evoked potential (DEEP) mapping with extra stimulus. JACC Clin Electrophysiol. 2018;4:307–315.
    1. de Riva M, Naruse Y, Ebert M, et al. Targeting the hidden substrate unmasked by right ventricular extrastimulation improves ventricular tachycardia ablation outcome after myocardial infarction. JACC Clin Electrophysiol. 2018;4:316–327.
    1. Koplan BA, Soejima K, Baughman KL, Epstein LM, Stevenson WG. Refractory ventricular tachycardia secondary to cardiac sarcoid: electrophysiologic characteristics, mapping, and ablation. Heart Rhythm. 2006;3:924–929.
    1. Dechering DG, Kochhaüser S, Wasmer K, et al. Electrophysiological characteristics of ventricular tachyarrhythmias in cardiac sarcoidosis versus arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. Heart Rhythm. 2013;10:158–164.
    1. Calkins H, Epstein A, Packer D, et al. Catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in patients with structural heart disease using cooled radiofrequency energy: results of a prospective multicenter study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;35:1905–1914.
    1. Palaniswamy C, Kolte D, Harikrishnan P, et al. Catheter ablation of postinfarction ventricular tachycardia: ten-year trends in utilization, in-hospital complications, and in-hospital mortality in the United States. Heart Rhythm. 2014;11:2056–2063.
    1. Santangeli P, Muser D, Zado ES, et al. Acute hemodynamic decompensation during catheter ablation of scar-related ventricular tachycardia: incidence, predictors, and impact on mortality. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2015;8:68–75.
    1. Katz DF, Turakhia MP, Sauer WH, et al. Safety of ventricular tachycardia ablation in clinical practice: findings from 9699 hospital discharge records. Circ Arrhythmia Electrophysiol. 2015;8:362–370.
    1. Santangeli P, Frankel DS, Tung R, et al. Early mortality after catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in patients with structural heart disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017;69:2105–2115.
    1. Jackson N, McGee M, Ahmed W, et al. Groin haemostasis with a purse string suture for patients following catheter ablation procedures (GITAR study). Heart Lung Circ. 2018. 10.1016/j.hlc.2018.03.011.
    1. Pracon R, Bangalore S, Henzel J, et al. A randomized comparison of modified subcutaneous “Z”-stitch versus manual compression to achieve hemostasis after large caliber femoral venous sheath removal. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2018;91:105–112.
    1. Ben-Dor I, Craig P, Torguson R, et al. MynxGrip vascular closure device versus manual compression for hemostasis of percutaneous transfemoral venous access closure: results from a prospective multicenter randomized study. Cardiovasc Revasc Med. 2018;19:418–422.
    1. Robertson L, Andras A, Colgan F, Jackson R. Vascular closure devices for femoral arterial puncture site haemostasis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;3:CD009541.
    1. Jiang J, Zou J, Ma H, et al. Network meta-analysis of randomized trials on the safety of vascular closure devices for femoral arterial puncture site haemostasis. Sci Rep. 2015;5:13761.
    1. Dyrda K, Piers SR, van Huls van Taxis CF, Schalij MJ, Zeppenfeld K. Influence of steroid therapy on the incidence of pericarditis and atrial fibrillation after percutaneous epicardial mapping and ablation for ventricular tachycardia. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2014;7:671–676.
    1. Patel AA, Clyne CA, Henyan NN, et al. The use of protamine after radiofrequency catheter ablation: a pilot study. J Interv Card Electrophysiol. 2007;18:155–158.
    1. Ghannam M, Chugh A, Dillon P, et al. Protamine to expedite vascular hemostasis after catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation: a randomized controlled trial. Heart Rhythm. 2018;15:1642–1647.
    1. Cheitlin MD, Alpert JS, Armstrong WF, et al. ACC/AHA guidelines for the clinical application of echocardiography: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on Clinical Application of Echocardiography) Circulation. 1997;95:1686–1744.
    1. Frankel DS, Mountantonakis SE, Zado ES, et al. Noninvasive programmed ventricular stimulation early after ventricular tachycardia ablation to predict risk of late recurrence. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;59:1529–1535.
    1. Oloriz T, Baratto F, Trevisi N, et al. Defining the outcome of ventricular tachycardia ablation: timing and value of programmed ventricular stimulation. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2018;11:e005602.

Source: PubMed

Спонсоры и соавторы

Заболевания

Медикаментозные вмешательства

Подписаться