Effects of unfermented and fermented whole grain rye crisp breads served as part of a standardized breakfast, on appetite and postprandial glucose and insulin responses: a randomized cross-over trial

Daniel P Johansson, Isabella Lee, Ulf Risérus, Maud Langton, Rikard Landberg, Daniel P Johansson, Isabella Lee, Ulf Risérus, Maud Langton, Rikard Landberg

Abstract

Background: Whole grain rye products have been shown to increase satiety and elicit lower postprandial insulin response without a corresponding change in glucose response compared with soft refined wheat bread. The underlying mechanisms for these effects have not been fully determined The primary aim of the study was to investigate if whole grain rye crisp bread compared to refined wheat crisp bread, elected beneficial effects on appetite and postprandial insulin response, similarly as for other rye products.

Methods: In a randomized cross-over trial, 23 healthy volunteers, aged 27-70 years, BMI 18-31.4 kg/m2, were served a standardized breakfast with unfermented whole grain rye crisp bread (uRCB), fermented whole grain rye crisp bread (RCB) or refined wheat crisp bread (WCB), Appetite was measured using a visual analogue scale (VAS) until 4 h after breakfast. Postprandial glucose and insulin were measured at 0-230 min. Breads were chemically characterized including macronutrients, energy, dietary fiber components, and amino acid composition, and microstructure was characterized with light microscopy.

Results: Reported fullness was 16% higher (P<0.001), and hunger 11% and 12% lower (P<0.05) after ingestion of uRCB and RCB, respectively, compared with WCB. Postprandial glucose response did not differ significantly between treatments. Postprandial insulin was 10% lower (P<0.007) between 0-120 min but not significantly lower between 0-230 min for RCB compared with WCB. uRCB induced 13% (P<0.002) and 17% (P<0.001) lower postprandial insulin response between 0-230 min compared with RCB and WCB respectively.

Conclusion: Whole grain rye crisp bread induces higher satiety and lower insulin response compared with refined wheat crisp bread. Microstructural characteristics, dietary fiber content and composition are probable contributors to the increased satiety after ingestion of rye crisp breads. Higher insulin secretion after ingestion of RCB and WCB compared with uRCB may be due to differences in fiber content and composition, and higher availability of insulinogenic branched chain amino acids.

Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02011217.

Conflict of interest statement

Competing Interests: DPJ has read the journal's policy and the authors of this manuscript have the following competing interests: RL holds a research grant from Barilla for the financing of the current study. RL did not get salary or any other financial compensation for conducting the present study or for any other purposes. No other financial competing interests exist.

Figures

Fig 1. Flowchart of the study progress.
Fig 1. Flowchart of the study progress.
Fig 2. Subjective hunger.
Fig 2. Subjective hunger.
Left: Subjective hunger reported by n = 23 participants. Values are means. A statistically significant difference between treatments was found (P = 0.0043). Right: AUC for subjective hunger reported by n = 23 participants. A statistically significant difference between treatments was found (P = 0.0419). Values are adjusted least square means (LSM) ± standard errors (SE). Differences between treatments are given as percentage difference between the LSM values for AUC of the treatments. P

Fig 3. Subjective fullness.

Left: Subjective fullness…

Fig 3. Subjective fullness.

Left: Subjective fullness reported by n = 23 participants. Values are…

Fig 3. Subjective fullness.
Left: Subjective fullness reported by n = 23 participants. Values are means. A statistically significant difference between treatments was found (P

Fig 4. Subjective desire to eat.

Left:…

Fig 4. Subjective desire to eat.

Left: Subjective desire to eat reported by n =…

Fig 4. Subjective desire to eat.
Left: Subjective desire to eat reported by n = 23 participants. Values are means. A statistically significant difference between treatments was found (P

Fig 5. Plasma glucose profile and AUC.

Fig 5. Plasma glucose profile and AUC.

Left: Plasma glucose concentration- time profile in n…

Fig 5. Plasma glucose profile and AUC.
Left: Plasma glucose concentration- time profile in n = 23 participants. Values are means. No statistically significant effect attributed to breakfast treatment (P = 0.60) was obtained. Right: Differences in total AUC0–230 min and AUC0-120 between breakfast treatments. Values are adjusted least square means (LSM) ± standard errors (SE).

Fig 6. Plasma insulin profile and AUC.

Fig 6. Plasma insulin profile and AUC.

Left: Plasma insulin concentration- time profile in n…

Fig 6. Plasma insulin profile and AUC.
Left: Plasma insulin concentration- time profile in n = 23 participants. Values are means. A statistically significant interaction between treatment x time was detected (P0–230 min and AUC0-120 between breakfast treatments. Values are adjusted least square means (LSM) ± standard errors (SE). Differences between treatments are given as percentage difference between the LSM values for AUC of the treatments. P<0.05 was considered significant.

Fig 7. Micrographs showing the microstructure at…

Fig 7. Micrographs showing the microstructure at the center of the crisp bread.

(A) unfermented…

Fig 7. Micrographs showing the microstructure at the center of the crisp bread.
(A) unfermented whole grain rye crisp bread (uRCB), (B) yeast-fermented whole grain rye crisp bread (RCB), and (C) yeast-fermented refined wheat crisp bread (WCB). Protein is colored yellow (a), amylopectin-rich areas purple (b), and amylose blue (c). Fat can be seen in WCB as brown aggregates (d) and yeast cells are present in WCB and RCB (e). Aleurone layers can be seen in uRCB and RCB (f).
All figures (7)
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References
    1. Swinburn BA, Sacks G, Hall KD, McPherson K, Finegood DT, Moodie ML, et al. (2011) The global obesity pandemic: shaped by global drivers and local environments. Lancet 2011;378: 804–814. 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60813-1 - DOI - PubMed
    1. Mozaffarian D, Hao T, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Hu FB. Changes in Diet and Lifestyle and Long-Term Weight Gain in Women and Men. N Engl J Med 2011;364: 2392–2404. 10.1056/NEJMoa1014296 - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Wirfält E, Drake I, Wallström P. What do review papers conclude about food and dietary patterns? Food Nutr Res 2013;57 Available: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=3589439&tool=p.... - PMC - PubMed
    1. Hetherington MM, Cunningham K, Dye L, Gibson EL, Gregersen NT, Halford JCG, et al. Potential benefits of satiety to the consumer: scientific considerations. Nutr Res Rev 2013;26: 22–38. 10.1017/S0954422413000012 - DOI - PubMed
    1. Blundell J, de Graaf C, Hulshof T, Jebb S, Livingstone B, Lluch A, et al. Appetite control: methodological aspects of the evaluation of foods. Obes Rev 2010;11: 251–270. 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2010.00714.x - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Show all 69 references
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RL holds a research grant from Barilla for the financing of the current study (http://www.barillagroup.com/). RL did not get salary or any other financial compensation for conducting the present study or for any other purposes. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
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Fig 3. Subjective fullness.
Fig 3. Subjective fullness.
Left: Subjective fullness reported by n = 23 participants. Values are means. A statistically significant difference between treatments was found (P

Fig 4. Subjective desire to eat.

Left:…

Fig 4. Subjective desire to eat.

Left: Subjective desire to eat reported by n =…

Fig 4. Subjective desire to eat.
Left: Subjective desire to eat reported by n = 23 participants. Values are means. A statistically significant difference between treatments was found (P

Fig 5. Plasma glucose profile and AUC.

Fig 5. Plasma glucose profile and AUC.

Left: Plasma glucose concentration- time profile in n…

Fig 5. Plasma glucose profile and AUC.
Left: Plasma glucose concentration- time profile in n = 23 participants. Values are means. No statistically significant effect attributed to breakfast treatment (P = 0.60) was obtained. Right: Differences in total AUC0–230 min and AUC0-120 between breakfast treatments. Values are adjusted least square means (LSM) ± standard errors (SE).

Fig 6. Plasma insulin profile and AUC.

Fig 6. Plasma insulin profile and AUC.

Left: Plasma insulin concentration- time profile in n…

Fig 6. Plasma insulin profile and AUC.
Left: Plasma insulin concentration- time profile in n = 23 participants. Values are means. A statistically significant interaction between treatment x time was detected (P0–230 min and AUC0-120 between breakfast treatments. Values are adjusted least square means (LSM) ± standard errors (SE). Differences between treatments are given as percentage difference between the LSM values for AUC of the treatments. P<0.05 was considered significant.

Fig 7. Micrographs showing the microstructure at…

Fig 7. Micrographs showing the microstructure at the center of the crisp bread.

(A) unfermented…

Fig 7. Micrographs showing the microstructure at the center of the crisp bread.
(A) unfermented whole grain rye crisp bread (uRCB), (B) yeast-fermented whole grain rye crisp bread (RCB), and (C) yeast-fermented refined wheat crisp bread (WCB). Protein is colored yellow (a), amylopectin-rich areas purple (b), and amylose blue (c). Fat can be seen in WCB as brown aggregates (d) and yeast cells are present in WCB and RCB (e). Aleurone layers can be seen in uRCB and RCB (f).
All figures (7)
Similar articles
Cited by
References
    1. Swinburn BA, Sacks G, Hall KD, McPherson K, Finegood DT, Moodie ML, et al. (2011) The global obesity pandemic: shaped by global drivers and local environments. Lancet 2011;378: 804–814. 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60813-1 - DOI - PubMed
    1. Mozaffarian D, Hao T, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Hu FB. Changes in Diet and Lifestyle and Long-Term Weight Gain in Women and Men. N Engl J Med 2011;364: 2392–2404. 10.1056/NEJMoa1014296 - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Wirfält E, Drake I, Wallström P. What do review papers conclude about food and dietary patterns? Food Nutr Res 2013;57 Available: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=3589439&tool=p.... - PMC - PubMed
    1. Hetherington MM, Cunningham K, Dye L, Gibson EL, Gregersen NT, Halford JCG, et al. Potential benefits of satiety to the consumer: scientific considerations. Nutr Res Rev 2013;26: 22–38. 10.1017/S0954422413000012 - DOI - PubMed
    1. Blundell J, de Graaf C, Hulshof T, Jebb S, Livingstone B, Lluch A, et al. Appetite control: methodological aspects of the evaluation of foods. Obes Rev 2010;11: 251–270. 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2010.00714.x - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Show all 69 references
Publication types
MeSH terms
Associated data
Grant support
RL holds a research grant from Barilla for the financing of the current study (http://www.barillagroup.com/). RL did not get salary or any other financial compensation for conducting the present study or for any other purposes. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
[x]
Cite
Copy Download .nbib
Format: AMA APA MLA NLM
Fig 4. Subjective desire to eat.
Fig 4. Subjective desire to eat.
Left: Subjective desire to eat reported by n = 23 participants. Values are means. A statistically significant difference between treatments was found (P

Fig 5. Plasma glucose profile and AUC.

Fig 5. Plasma glucose profile and AUC.

Left: Plasma glucose concentration- time profile in n…

Fig 5. Plasma glucose profile and AUC.
Left: Plasma glucose concentration- time profile in n = 23 participants. Values are means. No statistically significant effect attributed to breakfast treatment (P = 0.60) was obtained. Right: Differences in total AUC0–230 min and AUC0-120 between breakfast treatments. Values are adjusted least square means (LSM) ± standard errors (SE).

Fig 6. Plasma insulin profile and AUC.

Fig 6. Plasma insulin profile and AUC.

Left: Plasma insulin concentration- time profile in n…

Fig 6. Plasma insulin profile and AUC.
Left: Plasma insulin concentration- time profile in n = 23 participants. Values are means. A statistically significant interaction between treatment x time was detected (P0–230 min and AUC0-120 between breakfast treatments. Values are adjusted least square means (LSM) ± standard errors (SE). Differences between treatments are given as percentage difference between the LSM values for AUC of the treatments. P<0.05 was considered significant.

Fig 7. Micrographs showing the microstructure at…

Fig 7. Micrographs showing the microstructure at the center of the crisp bread.

(A) unfermented…

Fig 7. Micrographs showing the microstructure at the center of the crisp bread.
(A) unfermented whole grain rye crisp bread (uRCB), (B) yeast-fermented whole grain rye crisp bread (RCB), and (C) yeast-fermented refined wheat crisp bread (WCB). Protein is colored yellow (a), amylopectin-rich areas purple (b), and amylose blue (c). Fat can be seen in WCB as brown aggregates (d) and yeast cells are present in WCB and RCB (e). Aleurone layers can be seen in uRCB and RCB (f).
All figures (7)
Fig 5. Plasma glucose profile and AUC.
Fig 5. Plasma glucose profile and AUC.
Left: Plasma glucose concentration- time profile in n = 23 participants. Values are means. No statistically significant effect attributed to breakfast treatment (P = 0.60) was obtained. Right: Differences in total AUC0–230 min and AUC0-120 between breakfast treatments. Values are adjusted least square means (LSM) ± standard errors (SE).
Fig 6. Plasma insulin profile and AUC.
Fig 6. Plasma insulin profile and AUC.
Left: Plasma insulin concentration- time profile in n = 23 participants. Values are means. A statistically significant interaction between treatment x time was detected (P0–230 min and AUC0-120 between breakfast treatments. Values are adjusted least square means (LSM) ± standard errors (SE). Differences between treatments are given as percentage difference between the LSM values for AUC of the treatments. P<0.05 was considered significant.
Fig 7. Micrographs showing the microstructure at…
Fig 7. Micrographs showing the microstructure at the center of the crisp bread.
(A) unfermented whole grain rye crisp bread (uRCB), (B) yeast-fermented whole grain rye crisp bread (RCB), and (C) yeast-fermented refined wheat crisp bread (WCB). Protein is colored yellow (a), amylopectin-rich areas purple (b), and amylose blue (c). Fat can be seen in WCB as brown aggregates (d) and yeast cells are present in WCB and RCB (e). Aleurone layers can be seen in uRCB and RCB (f).

References

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    1. Blundell J, de Graaf C, Hulshof T, Jebb S, Livingstone B, Lluch A, et al. Appetite control: methodological aspects of the evaluation of foods. Obes Rev 2010;11: 251–270. 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2010.00714.x
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