International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: protein and exercise

Ralf Jäger, Chad M Kerksick, Bill I Campbell, Paul J Cribb, Shawn D Wells, Tim M Skwiat, Martin Purpura, Tim N Ziegenfuss, Arny A Ferrando, Shawn M Arent, Abbie E Smith-Ryan, Jeffrey R Stout, Paul J Arciero, Michael J Ormsbee, Lem W Taylor, Colin D Wilborn, Doug S Kalman, Richard B Kreider, Darryn S Willoughby, Jay R Hoffman, Jamie L Krzykowski, Jose Antonio, Ralf Jäger, Chad M Kerksick, Bill I Campbell, Paul J Cribb, Shawn D Wells, Tim M Skwiat, Martin Purpura, Tim N Ziegenfuss, Arny A Ferrando, Shawn M Arent, Abbie E Smith-Ryan, Jeffrey R Stout, Paul J Arciero, Michael J Ormsbee, Lem W Taylor, Colin D Wilborn, Doug S Kalman, Richard B Kreider, Darryn S Willoughby, Jay R Hoffman, Jamie L Krzykowski, Jose Antonio

Abstract

The International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN) provides an objective and critical review related to the intake of protein for healthy, exercising individuals. Based on the current available literature, the position of the Society is as follows:An acute exercise stimulus, particularly resistance exercise, and protein ingestion both stimulate muscle protein synthesis (MPS) and are synergistic when protein consumption occurs before or after resistance exercise.For building muscle mass and for maintaining muscle mass through a positive muscle protein balance, an overall daily protein intake in the range of 1.4-2.0 g protein/kg body weight/day (g/kg/d) is sufficient for most exercising individuals, a value that falls in line within the Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range published by the Institute of Medicine for protein.Higher protein intakes (2.3-3.1 g/kg/d) may be needed to maximize the retention of lean body mass in resistance-trained subjects during hypocaloric periods.There is novel evidence that suggests higher protein intakes (>3.0 g/kg/d) may have positive effects on body composition in resistance-trained individuals (i.e., promote loss of fat mass).Recommendations regarding the optimal protein intake per serving for athletes to maximize MPS are mixed and are dependent upon age and recent resistance exercise stimuli. General recommendations are 0.25 g of a high-quality protein per kg of body weight, or an absolute dose of 20-40 g.Acute protein doses should strive to contain 700-3000 mg of leucine and/or a higher relative leucine content, in addition to a balanced array of the essential amino acids (EAAs).These protein doses should ideally be evenly distributed, every 3-4 h, across the day.The optimal time period during which to ingest protein is likely a matter of individual tolerance, since benefits are derived from pre- or post-workout ingestion; however, the anabolic effect of exercise is long-lasting (at least 24 h), but likely diminishes with increasing time post-exercise.While it is possible for physically active individuals to obtain their daily protein requirements through the consumption of whole foods, supplementation is a practical way of ensuring intake of adequate protein quality and quantity, while minimizing caloric intake, particularly for athletes who typically complete high volumes of training. Rapidly digested proteins that contain high proportions of essential amino acids (EAAs) and adequate leucine, are most effective in stimulating MPS. Different types and quality of protein can affect amino acid bioavailability following protein supplementation. Athletes should consider focusing on whole food sources of protein that contain all of the EAAs (i.e., it is the EAAs that are required to stimulate MPS). Endurance athletes should focus on achieving adequate carbohydrate intake to promote optimal performance; the addition of protein may help to offset muscle damage and promote recovery. Pre-sleep casein protein intake (30-40 g) provides increases in overnight MPS and metabolic rate without influencing lipolysis.

References

    1. Campbell B, Kreider RB, Ziegenfuss T, La Bounty P, Roberts M, Burke D, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: protein and exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2007;4:8.
    1. Macdermid PW, Stannard SR. A whey-supplemented, high-protein diet versus a high-carbohydrate diet: effects on endurance cycling performance. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2006;16:65–77. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.16.1.65.
    1. Burke LM, Hawley JA, Wong SH, Jeukendrup AE. Carbohydrates for training and competition. J Sports Sci. 2011;29(Suppl 1):S17–S27. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2011.585473.
    1. Witard OC, Jackman SR, Kies AK, Jeukendrup AE, Tipton KD. Effect of increased dietary protein on tolerance to intensified training. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43:598–607. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181f684c9.
    1. D'lugos AC, Luden ND, Faller JM, Akers JD, Mckenzie AI, Saunders MJ. Supplemental protein during heavy cycling training and recovery impacts skeletal muscle and heart rate responses but not performance. Nutrients. 2016;8:9. doi: 10.3390/nu8010009.
    1. Breen L, Tipton KD, Jeukendrup AE. No effect of carbohydrate-protein on cycling performance and indices of recovery. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010;42:1140–1148.
    1. Saunders MJ, Moore RW, Kies AK, Luden ND, Pratt CA. Carbohydrate and protein hydrolysate coingestions improvement of late-exercise time-trial performance. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2009;19:136–149. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.19.2.136.
    1. Valentine RJ, Saunders MJ, Todd MK, St Laurent TG. Influence of carbohydrate-protein beverage on cycling endurance and indices of muscle disruption. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2008;18:363–378. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.18.4.363.
    1. Van Essen M, Gibala MJ. Failure of protein to improve time trial performance when added to a sports drink. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006;38:1476–1483. doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000228958.82968.0a.
    1. Ivy JL, Res PT, Sprague RC, Widzer MO. Effect of a carbohydrate-protein supplement on endurance performance during exercise of varying intensity. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2003;13:382–395. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.13.3.382.
    1. Saunders MJ, Kane MD, Todd MK. Effects of a carbohydrate-protein beverage on cycling endurance and muscle damage. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36:1233–1238. doi: 10.1249/01.MSS.0000132377.66177.9F.
    1. Saunders MJ, Luden ND, Herrick JE. Consumption of an oral carbohydrate-protein gel improves cycling endurance and prevents postexercise muscle damage. J Strength Cond Res. 2007;21:678–684.
    1. Romano-Ely BC, Todd MK, Saunders MJ, Laurent TS. Effect of an isocaloric carbohydrate-protein-antioxidant drink on cycling performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006;38:1608–1616. doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000229458.11452.e9.
    1. Beelen M, Zorenc A, Pennings B, Senden JM, Kuipers H, Van Loon LJ. Impact of protein coingestion on muscle protein synthesis during continuous endurance type exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2011;300:E945–E954. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00446.2010.
    1. Andersen LL, Tufekovic G, Zebis MK, Crameri RM, Verlaan G, Kjaer M, et al. The effect of resistance training combined with timed ingestion of protein on muscle fiber size and muscle strength. Metab Clin Exp. 2005;54:151–6.
    1. Bemben MG, Witten MS, Carter JM, Eliot KA, Knehans AW, Bemben DA. The effects of supplementation with creatine and protein on muscle strength following a traditional resistance training program in middle-aged and older men. J Nutr Health Aging. 2010;14:155–159. doi: 10.1007/s12603-009-0124-8.
    1. Burke DG, Chilibeck PD, Davidson KS, Candow DG, Farthing J, Smith-Palmer T. The effect of whey protein supplementation with and without creatine monohydrate combined with resistance training on lean tissue mass and muscle strength. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2001;11:349–364. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.11.3.349.
    1. Denysschen CA, Burton HW, Horvath PJ, Leddy JJ, Browne RW. Resistance training with soy vs whey protein supplements in hyperlipidemic males. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2009;6:8. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-6-8.
    1. Erskine RM, Fletcher G, Hanson B, Folland JP. Whey protein does not enhance the adaptations to elbow flexor resistance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012;44:1791–1800. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e318256c48d.
    1. Herda AA, Herda TJ, Costa PB, Ryan ED, Stout JR, Cramer JT. Muscle performance, size, and safety responses after eight weeks of resistance training and protein supplementation: a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial. J Strength Cond Res. 2013;27:3091–3100. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31828c289f.
    1. Hulmi JJ, Kovanen V, Selanne H, Kraemer WJ, Hakkinen K, Mero AA. Acute and long-term effects of resistance exercise with or without protein ingestion on muscle hypertrophy and gene expression. Amino Acids. 2009;37:297–308. doi: 10.1007/s00726-008-0150-6.
    1. Kerksick CM, Rasmussen CJ, Lancaster SL, Magu B, Smith P, Melton C, et al. The effects of protein and amino acid supplementation on performance and training adaptations during ten weeks of resistance training. J Strength Cond Res. 2006;20:643–53.
    1. Kukuljan S, Nowson CA, Sanders K, Daly RM. Effects of resistance exercise and fortified milk on skeletal muscle mass, muscle size, and functional performance in middle-aged and older men: an 18-mo randomized controlled trial. J Appl Physiol (Bethesda, Md : 1985) 2009;107:1864–1873. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00392.2009.
    1. Weisgarber KD, Candow DG, Vogt ES. Whey protein before and during resistance exercise has no effect on muscle mass and strength in untrained young adults. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2012;22:463–469. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.22.6.463.
    1. Willoughby DS, Stout JR, Wilborn CD. Effects of resistance training and protein plus amino acid supplementation on muscle anabolism, mass, and strength. Amino Acids. 2007;32:467–477. doi: 10.1007/s00726-006-0398-7.
    1. Candow DG, Burke NC, Smith-Palmer T, Burke DG. Effect of whey and soy protein supplementation combined with resistance training in young adults. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2006;16:233–244. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.16.3.233.
    1. Cribb PJ, Williams AD, Stathis CG, Carey MF, Hayes A. Effects of whey isolate, creatine, and resistance training on muscle hypertrophy. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39:298–307. doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000247002.32589.ef.
    1. Hoffman JR, Ratamess NA, Kang J, Falvo MJ, Faigenbaum AD. Effect of protein intake on strength, body composition and endocrine changes in strength/power athletes. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2006;3:12–18. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-3-2-12.
    1. Hoffman JR, Ratamess NA, Kang J, Falvo MJ, Faigenbaum AD. Effects of protein supplementation on muscular performance and resting hormonal changes in college football players. J Sports Sci Med. 2007;6:85–92.
    1. Hida A, Hasegawa Y, Mekata Y, Usuda M, Masuda Y, Kawano H, et al. Effects of egg white protein supplementation on muscle strength and serum free amino acid concentrations. Nutrients. 2012;4:1504–17.
    1. Moore DR, Robinson MJ, Fry JL, Tang JE, Glover EI, Wilkinson SB, et al. Ingested protein dose response of muscle and albumin protein synthesis after resistance exercise in young men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;89:161–8.
    1. Schoenfeld BJ, Aragon AA, Krieger JW. The effect of protein timing on muscle strength and hypertrophy: a meta-analysis. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2013;10:53. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-10-53.
    1. Josse AR, Tang JE, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM. Body composition and strength changes in women with milk and resistance exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010;42:1122–1130.
    1. Taylor LW, Wilborn C, Roberts MD, White A, Dugan K. Eight weeks of pre- and postexercise whey protein supplementation increases lean body mass and improves performance in division III collegiate female basketball players. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2016;41:249–254. doi: 10.1139/apnm-2015-0463.
    1. Cermak NM, Res PT, De Groot LC, Saris WH, Van Loon LJ. Protein supplementation augments the adaptive response of skeletal muscle to resistance-type exercise training: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;96:1454–1464. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.112.037556.
    1. Pasiakos SM, Mclellan TM, Lieberman HR. The effects of protein supplements on muscle mass, strength, and aerobic and anaerobic power in healthy adults: a systematic review. Sports Med. 2015;45:111–131. doi: 10.1007/s40279-014-0242-2.
    1. Rennie MJ. Control of muscle protein synthesis as a result of contractile activity and amino acid availability: implications for protein requirements. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2001;11(s1):S170–S176. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.11.s1.s170.
    1. Phillips SM. The science of muscle hypertrophy: making dietary protein count. Proc Nutr Soc. 2011;70:100–103. doi: 10.1017/S002966511000399X.
    1. Tipton KD, Phillips SM. Dietary protein for muscle hypertrophy. Nestle Nutrition Institute workshop series. 2013;76:73–84. doi: 10.1159/000350259.
    1. Layman DK, Evans E, Baum JI, Seyler J, Erickson DJ, Boileau RA. Dietary protein and exercise have additive effects on body composition during weight loss in adult women. J Nutr. 2005;135:1903–1910.
    1. Layman DK, Boileau RA, Erickson DJ, Painter JE, Shiue H, Sather C, et al. A reduced ratio of dietary carbohydrate to protein improves body composition and blood lipid profiles during weight loss in adult women. J Nutr. 2003;133:411–7.
    1. Pasiakos SM, Cao JJ, Margolis LM, Sauter ER, Whigham LD, Mcclung JP, et al. Effects of high-protein diets on fat-free mass and muscle protein synthesis following weight loss: a randomized controlled trial. FASEB J. 2013;27:3837–47.
    1. Kerksick C, Thomas A, Campbell B, Taylor L, Wilborn C, Marcello B, et al. Effects of a popular exercise and weight loss program on weight loss, body composition, energy expenditure and health in obese women. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2009;6:23.
    1. Kerksick CM, Wismann-Bunn J, Fogt D, Thomas AR, Taylor L, Campbell BI, et al. Changes in weight loss, body composition and cardiovascular disease risk after altering macronutrient distributions during a regular exercise program in obese women. Nutr J. 2010;9:59.
    1. Kreider RB, Serra M, Beavers KM, Moreillon J, Kresta JY, Byrd M, et al. A structured diet and exercise program promotes favorable changes in weight loss, body composition, and weight maintenance. J Am Diet Assoc. 2011;111:828–43.
    1. Biolo G, Tipton KD, Klein S, Wolfe RR. An abundant supply of amino acids enhances the metabolic effect of exercise on muscle protein. Am J Phys. 1997;273(1 Pt 1):E122–E129.
    1. Zawadzki KM, Yaspelkis BB, 3rd, Ivy JL. Carbohydrate-protein complex increases the rate of muscle glycogen storage after exercise. J Appl Physiol. (Bethesda, Md : 1985) 1992;72:1854–1859.
    1. Biolo G, Maggi SP, Williams BD, Tipton KD, Wolfe RR. Increased rates of muscle protein turnover and amino acid transport after resistance exercise in humans. Am J Phys. 1995;268(3 Pt 1):E514–E520.
    1. Tipton KD, Ferrando AA, Phillips SM, Doyle D, Jr, Wolfe RR. Postexercise net protein synthesis in human muscle from orally administered amino acids. Am J Phys. 1999;276(4 Pt 1):E628–E634.
    1. Burd NA, West DW, Moore DR, Atherton PJ, Staples AW, Prior T, et al. Enhanced amino acid sensitivity of myofibrillar protein synthesis persists for up to 24 h after resistance exercise in young men. J Nutr. 2011;141:568–73.
    1. Tipton KD, Gurkin BE, Matin S, Wolfe RR. Nonessential amino acids are not necessary to stimulate net muscle protein synthesis in healthy volunteers. J Nutr Biochem. 1999;10:89–95. doi: 10.1016/S0955-2863(98)00087-4.
    1. Borsheim E, Tipton KD, Wolf SE, Wolfe RR. Essential amino acids and muscle protein recovery from resistance exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2002;283:E648–E657. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00466.2001.
    1. Volpi E, Kobayashi H, Sheffield-Moore M, Mittendorfer B, Wolfe RR. Essential amino acids are primarily responsible for the amino acid stimulation of muscle protein anabolism in healthy elderly adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;78:250–258.
    1. Tipton KD, Rasmussen BB, Miller SL, Wolf SE, Owens-Stovall SK, Petrini BE, et al. Timing of amino acid-carbohydrate ingestion alters anabolic response of muscle to resistance exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2001;281:E197–206.
    1. Tipton KD, Borsheim E, Wolf SE, Sanford AP, Wolfe RR. Acute response of net muscle protein balance reflects 24-h balance after exercise and amino acid ingestion. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2003;284:E76–E89. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00234.2002.
    1. Coffey VG, Moore DR, Burd NA, Rerecich T, Stellingwerff T, Garnham AP, et al. Nutrient provision increases signalling and protein synthesis in human skeletal muscle after repeated sprints. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2011;111:1473–83.
    1. Breen L, Philp A, Witard OC, Jackman SR, Selby A, Smith K, et al. The influence of carbohydrate-protein co-ingestion following endurance exercise on myofibrillar and mitochondrial protein synthesis. J Physiol. 2011;589(Pt 16):4011–25.
    1. Ferguson-Stegall L, Mccleave EL, Ding Z, Doerner PG 3rd, Wang B, Liao YH, et al. Postexercise carbohydrate-protein supplementation improves subsequent exercise performance and intracellular signaling for protein synthesis. J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25:1210–24.
    1. Volek JS. Influence of nutrition on responses to resistance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36:689–696. doi: 10.1249/01.MSS.0000121944.19275.C4.
    1. Kerksick C, Harvey T, Stout J, Campbell B, Wilborn C, Kreider R, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutrient timing. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2008;5:17.
    1. Elliot TA, Cree MG, Sanford AP, Wolfe RR, Tipton KD. Milk ingestion stimulates net muscle protein synthesis following resistance exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006;38:667–674. doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000210190.64458.25.
    1. Farnfield MM, Breen L, Carey KA, Garnham A, Cameron-Smith D. Activation of mtor signalling in young and old human skeletal muscle in response to combined resistance exercise and whey protein ingestion. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2012;37:21–30. doi: 10.1139/h11-132.
    1. Tang JE, Manolakos JJ, Kujbida GW, Lysecki PJ, Moore DR, Phillips SM. Minimal whey protein with carbohydrate stimulates muscle protein synthesis following resistance exercise in trained young men. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2007;32:1132–1138. doi: 10.1139/H07-076.
    1. Tipton KD. Role of protein and hydrolysates before exercise. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2007;17(Suppl):S77–S86. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.17.s1.s77.
    1. Hulmi JJ, Kovanen V, Lisko I, Selanne H, Mero AA. The effects of whey protein on myostatin and cell cycle-related gene expression responses to a single heavy resistance exercise bout in trained older men. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2008;102:205–213. doi: 10.1007/s00421-007-0579-4.
    1. Ivy JL, Ding Z, Hwang H, Cialdella-Kam LC, Morrison PJ. Post exercise carbohydrate-protein supplementation: Phosphorylation of muscle proteins involved in glycogen synthesis and protein translation. Amino Acids. 2008;35:89–97. doi: 10.1007/s00726-007-0620-2.
    1. Churchward-Venne TA, Murphy CH, Longland TM, Phillips SM. Role of protein and amino acids in promoting lean mass accretion with resistance exercise and attenuating lean mass loss during energy deficit in humans. Amino Acids. 2013;45:231–240. doi: 10.1007/s00726-013-1506-0.
    1. Phillips SM. Short-term training: when do repeated bouts of resistance exercise become training? Can J Appl Physiol. 2000;25:185–193. doi: 10.1139/h00-014.
    1. Pennings B, Koopman R, Beelen M, Senden JM, Saris WH, Van Loon LJ. Exercising before protein intake allows for greater use of dietary protein-derived amino acids for de novo muscle protein synthesis in both young and elderly men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93:322–331. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2010.29649.
    1. Miller BF, Olesen JL, Hansen M, Dossing S, Crameri RM, Welling RJ, et al. Coordinated collagen and muscle protein synthesis in human patella tendon and quadriceps muscle after exercise. J Physiol. 2005;567(Pt 3):1021–33.
    1. Camera DM, Edge J, Short MJ, Hawley JA, Coffey VG. Early time course of akt phosphorylation after endurance and resistance exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010;42:1843–1852. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181d964e4.
    1. Cribb PJ, Hayes A. Effects of supplement timing and resistance exercise on skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006;38:1918–1925. doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000233790.08788.3e.
    1. Esmarck B, Andersen JL, Olsen S, Richter EA, Mizuno M, Kjaer M. Timing of postexercise protein intake is important for muscle hypertrophy with resistance training in elderly humans. J Physiol. 2001;535:301–311. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.00301.x.
    1. Hoffman JR, Ratamess NA, Tranchina CP, Rashti SL, Kang J, Faigenbaum AD. Effect of protein-supplement timing on strength, power, and body-composition changes in resistance-trained men. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2009;19:172–185. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.19.2.172.
    1. Fujita S, Dreyer HC, Drummond MJ, Glynn EL, Volpi E, Rasmussen BB. Essential amino acid and carbohydrate ingestion before resistance exercise does not enhance postexercise muscle protein synthesis. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2009;106:1730–1739. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.90395.2008.
    1. Bird SP, Tarpenning KM, Marino FE. Liquid carbohydrate/essential amino acid ingestion during a short-term bout of resistance exercise suppresses myofibrillar protein degradation. Metabolism. 2006;55:570–577. doi: 10.1016/j.metabol.2005.11.011.
    1. Roberts MD, Dalbo VJ, Hassell SE, Brown R, Kerksick CM. Effects of preexercise feeding on markers of satellite cell activation. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010;42:1861–1869. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181da8a29.
    1. Dalbo VJ, Roberts MD, Hassell S, Kerksick CM. Effects of pre-exercise feeding on serum hormone concentrations and biomarkers of myostatin and ubiquitin proteasome pathway activity. Eur J Nutr. 2013;52:477–487. doi: 10.1007/s00394-012-0349-x.
    1. Tipton KD, Elliott TA, Cree MG, Wolf SE, Sanford AP, Wolfe RR. Ingestion of casein and whey proteins result in muscle anabolism after resistance exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36:2073–2081. doi: 10.1249/01.MSS.0000147582.99810.C5.
    1. Kerksick CM, Leutholtz B. Nutrient administration and resistance training. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2005;2:50–67. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-2-1-50.
    1. Burk A, Timpmann S, Medijainen L, Vahi M, Oopik V. Time-divided ingestion pattern of casein-based protein supplement stimulates an increase in fat-free body mass during resistance training in young untrained men. Nutr Res. 2009;29:405–413. doi: 10.1016/j.nutres.2009.03.008.
    1. Schoenfeld BJ, Aragon A, Wilborn C, Urbina SL, Hayward SE, Krieger J. Pre- versus post-exercise protein intake has similar effects on muscular adaptations. PeerJ. 2017;5:e2825. doi: 10.7717/peerj.2825.
    1. Aragon AA, Schoenfeld BJ. Nutrient timing revisited: is there a post-exercise anabolic window? J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2013;10:5. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-10-5.
    1. Bosse JD, Dixon BM. Dietary protein to maximize resistance training: a review and examination of protein spread and change theories. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2012;9:42. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-9-42.
    1. Macnaughton LS, Wardle SL, Witard OC, Mcglory C, Hamilton DL, Jeromson S, et al. The response of muscle protein synthesis following whole-body resistance exercise is greater following 40 g than 20 g of ingested whey protein. Physiol Rep. 2016;4:15.
    1. Tang JE, Moore DR, Kujbida GW, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM. Ingestion of whey hydrolysate, casein, or soy protein isolate: effects on mixed muscle protein synthesis at rest and following resistance exercise in young men. J App Physiol (Bethesda, Md: 1985) 2009;107:987–992.
    1. West DW, Burd NA, Coffey VG, Baker SK, Burke LM, Hawley JA, et al. Rapid aminoacidemia enhances myofibrillar protein synthesis and anabolic intramuscular signaling responses after resistance exercise. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;94:795–803.
    1. FAO. WHO. UNU . Protein and amino acid requirements in human nutrition. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2002.
    1. Joy JM, Lowery RP, Wilson JM, Purpura M, De Souza EO, Wilson SM, et al. The effects of 8 weeks of whey or rice protein supplementation on body composition and exercise performance. Nutr J. 2013;12:86.
    1. Bos C, Metges CC, Gaudichon C, Petzke KJ, Pueyo ME, Morens C, et al. Postprandial kinetics of dietary amino acids are the main determinant of their metabolism after soy or milk protein ingestion in humans. J Nutr. 2003;133:1308–15.
    1. Burd NA, Yang Y, Moore DR, Tang JE, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM. Greater stimulation of myofibrillar protein synthesis with ingestion of whey protein isolate v. Micellar casein at rest and after resistance exercise in elderly men. Br J Nutr. 2012;108:958–962. doi: 10.1017/S0007114511006271.
    1. Phillips SM, Tang JE, Moore DR. The role of milk- and soy-based protein in support of muscle protein synthesis and muscle protein accretion in young and elderly persons. J Am Coll Nutr. 2009;28:343–354. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2009.10718096.
    1. Hartman JW, Tang JE, Wilkinson SB, Tarnopolsky MA, Lawrence RL, Fullerton AV, et al. Consumption of fat-free fluid milk after resistance exercise promotes greater lean mass accretion than does consumption of soy or carbohydrate in young, novice, male weightlifters. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86(2):373–81.
    1. Wilkinson SB, Tarnopolsky MA, Macdonald MJ, Macdonald JR, Armstrong D, Phillips SM. Consumption of fluid skim milk promotes greater muscle protein accretion after resistance exercise than does consumption of an isonitrogenous and isoenergetic soy-protein beverage. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:1031–1040.
    1. Kerksick CM, Rasmussen C, Lancaster S, Starks M, Smith P, Melton C, et al. Impact of differing protein sources and a creatine containing nutritional formula after 12 weeks of resistance training. Nutrition. 2007;23:647–56.
    1. Paddon-Jones D, Sheffield-Moore M, Aarsland A, Wolfe RR, Ferrando AA. Exogenous amino acids stimulate human muscle anabolism without interfering with the response to mixed meal ingestion. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2005;288:E761–E767. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00291.2004.
    1. Paddon-Jones D, Sheffield-Moore M, Urban RJ, Sanford AP, Aarsland A, Wolfe RR, et al. Essential amino acid and carbohydrate supplementation ameliorates muscle protein loss in humans during 28 days bedrest. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:4351–8.
    1. Phillips SM, Tipton KD, Aarsland A, Wolf SE, Wolfe RR. Mixed muscle protein synthesis and breakdown after resistance exercise in humans. Am J Phys. 1997;273(1 Pt 1):E99–107.
    1. Rennie MJ, Bohe J, Wolfe RR. Latency, duration and dose response relationships of amino acid effects on human muscle protein synthesis. J Nutr. 2002;132:3225S–3227S.
    1. Svanberg E, Jefferson LS, Lundholm K, Kimball SR. Postprandial stimulation of muscle protein synthesis is independent of changes in insulin. Am J Phys. 1997;272(5 Pt 1):E841–E847.
    1. Trommelen J, Groen BB, Hamer HM, De Groot LC, Van Loon LJ. Mechanisms in endocrinology: exogenous insulin does not increase muscle protein synthesis rate when administered systemically: a systematic review. Eur J Endocrinol. 2015;173:R25–R34. doi: 10.1530/EJE-14-0902.
    1. Abdulla H, Smith K, Atherton PJ, Idris I. Role of insulin in the regulation of human skeletal muscle protein synthesis and breakdown: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetologia. 2016;59:44–55. doi: 10.1007/s00125-015-3751-0.
    1. Greenhaff PL, Karagounis LG, Peirce N, Simpson EJ, Hazell M, Layfield R, et al. Disassociation between the effects of amino acids and insulin on signaling, ubiquitin ligases, and protein turnover in human muscle. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2008;295:E595–604.
    1. Rennie MJ, Bohe J, Smith K, Wackerhage H, Greenhaff P. Branched-chain amino acids as fuels and anabolic signals in human muscle. J Nutr. 2006;136(1 Suppl):264S–268S.
    1. Power O, Hallihan A, Jakeman P. Human insulinotropic response to oral ingestion of native and hydrolysed whey protein. Amino Acids. 2009;37:333–339. doi: 10.1007/s00726-008-0156-0.
    1. Staples AW, Burd NA, West DW, Currie KD, Atherton PJ, Moore DR, et al. Carbohydrate does not augment exercise-induced protein accretion versus protein alone. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43:1154–61.
    1. Baron KG, Reid KJ, Kern AS, Zee PC. Role of sleep timing in caloric intake and bmi. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2011;19:1374–1381. doi: 10.1038/oby.2011.100.
    1. Ormsbee MJ, Gorman KA, Miller EA, Baur DA, Eckel LA, Contreras RJ, et al. Nighttime feeding likely alters morning metabolism but not exercise performance in female athletes. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2016;41:719–27.
    1. Zwaan M, Burgard MA, Schenck CH, Mitchell JE. Night time eating: a review of the literature. Eur Eat Disord Rev. 2003;11:7–24. doi: 10.1002/erv.501.
    1. Kinsey AW, Ormsbee MJ. The health impact of nighttime eating: old and new perspectives. Nutrients. 2015;7:2648–2662. doi: 10.3390/nu7042648.
    1. Trommelen J, Van Loon LJ. Pre-sleep protein ingestion to improve the skeletal muscle adaptive response to exercise training. Nutrients. 2016;8:12. doi: 10.3390/nu8120763.
    1. Res PT, Groen B, Pennings B, Beelen M, Wallis GA, Gijsen AP, et al. Protein ingestion before sleep improves postexercise overnight recovery. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012;44:1560–9.
    1. Groen BB, Res PT, Pennings B, Hertle E, Senden JM, Saris WH, et al. Intragastric protein administration stimulates overnight muscle protein synthesis in elderly men. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2012;302:E52–60.
    1. Madzima TA, Panton LB, Fretti SK, Kinsey AW, Ormsbee MJ. Night-time consumption of protein or carbohydrate results in increased morning resting energy expenditure in active college-aged men. Br J Nutr. 2014;111:71–77. doi: 10.1017/S000711451300192X.
    1. Kinsey AW, Eddy WR, Madzima TA, Panton LB, Arciero PJ, Kim JS, et al. Influence of night-time protein and carbohydrate intake on appetite and cardiometabolic risk in sedentary overweight and obese women. Br J Nutr. 2014;112:320–7.
    1. Kinsey AW, Cappadona SR, Panton LB, Allman BR, Contreras RJ, Hickner RC, et al. The effect of casein protein prior to sleep on fat metabolism in obese men. Nutrients. 2016;8:8.
    1. Ormsbee MJ, Kinsey AW, Eddy WR, Madzima TA, Arciero PJ, Figueroa A, et al. The influence of nighttime feeding of carbohydrate or protein combined with exercise training on appetite and cardiometabolic risk in young obese women. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2015;40:37–45.
    1. Figueroa A, Wong A, Kinsey A, Kalfon R, Eddy W, Ormsbee MJ. Effects of milk proteins and combined exercise training on aortic hemodynamics and arterial stiffness in young obese women with high blood pressure. Am J Hypertens. 2014;27:338–344. doi: 10.1093/ajh/hpt224.
    1. Dirks ML, Groen BB, Franssen R, Van Kranenburg J, Van Loon LJ. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation prior to presleep protein feeding stimulates the use of protein-derived amino acids for overnight muscle protein synthesis. J Appl Physiol. (1985) 2017;122:20–27. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00331.2016.
    1. Holwerda AM, Kouw IW, Trommelen J, Halson SL, Wodzig WK, Verdijk LB, et al. Physical activity performed in the evening increases the overnight muscle protein synthetic response to presleep protein ingestion in older men. J Nutr. 2016;146:1307–14.
    1. Trommelen J, Holwerda AM, Kouw IW, Langer H, Halson SL, Rollo I, et al. Resistance exercise augments postprandial overnight muscle protein synthesis rates. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2016;48:2517–25.
    1. Snijders T, Res PT, Smeets JS, Van Vliet S, Van Kranenburg J, Maase K, et al. Protein ingestion before sleep increases muscle mass and strength gains during prolonged resistance-type exercise training in healthy young men. J Nutr. 2015;145:1178–84.
    1. Antonio J, Ellerbroek A, Peacock C, Silver T. Casein protein supplementation in trained men and women: morning versus evening. Int J Exerc Sci. 2017;10:479–486.
    1. Buckner SL, Leonneke JP, Loprinzi PD. Protein timing during the day and its relevance for muscle strength and lean mass. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging. doi: 10.1111/cpf.12440.
    1. Mitchell CJ, Churchward-Venne TA, Parise G, Bellamy L, Baker SK, Smith K, et al. Acute post-exercise myofibrillar protein synthesis is not correlated with resistance training-induced muscle hypertrophy in young men. PLoS One. 2014;9:e89431.
    1. Areta JL, Burke LM, Ross ML, Camera DM, West DW, Broad EM, et al. Timing and distribution of protein ingestion during prolonged recovery from resistance exercise alters myofibrillar protein synthesis. J Physiol. 2013;591:2319–31.
    1. Arnal MA, Mosoni L, Boirie Y, Houlier ML, Morin L, Verdier E, et al. Protein feeding pattern does not affect protein retention in young women. J Nutr. 2000;130:1700–4.
    1. Tinsley GM, Forsse JS, Butler NK, Paoli A, Bane AA, La Bounty PM, et al. Time-restricted feeding in young men performing resistance training: a randomized controlled trial. Eur J Sport Sci. 2017;17:200–7.
    1. Tarnopolsky MA, Macdougall JD, Atkinson SA. Influence of protein intake and training status on nitrogen balance and lean body mass. J App Physiol (Bethesda, Md: 1985) 1988;64:187–193.
    1. Phillips SM, Atkinson SA, Tarnopolsky MA, Macdougall JD. Gender differences in leucine kinetics and nitrogen balance in endurance athletes. J App Physiol (Bethesda, Md: 1985) 1993;75:2134–2141.
    1. Lemon PW. Effect of exercise on protein requirements. J Sports Sci. 1991;9(S1):53–70. doi: 10.1080/02640419108729866.
    1. Phillips SM. Protein requirements and supplementation in strength sports. Nutrition. 2004;20:689–695. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2004.04.009.
    1. Tarnopolsky MA, Atkinson SA, Macdougall JD, Chesley A, Phillips S, Schwarcz HP. Evaluation of protein requirements for trained strength athletes. J Appl Physiol. 1992;73:1986–1995.
    1. Phillips SM. A brief review of higher dietary protein diets in weight loss: a focus on athletes. Sports Med. 2014;44(Suppl 2):S149–S153. doi: 10.1007/s40279-014-0254-y.
    1. Witard OC, Jackman SR, Breen L, Smith K, Selby A, Tipton KD. Myofibrillar muscle protein synthesis rates subsequent to a meal in response to increasing doses of whey protein at rest and after resistance exercise. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014;99:86–95. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.112.055517.
    1. Yang Y, Breen L, Burd NA, Hector AJ, Churchward-Venne TA, Josse AR, et al. Resistance exercise enhances myofibrillar protein synthesis with graded intakes of whey protein in older men. Br J Nutr. 2012;108:1780–8.
    1. Bohe J, Low JF, Wolfe RR, Rennie MJ. Latency and duration of stimulation of human muscle protein synthesis during continuous infusion of amino acids. J Physiol. 2001;532(Pt 2):575–579. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.0575f.x.
    1. Atherton PJ, Etheridge T, Watt PW, Wilkinson D, Selby A, Rankin D, et al. Muscle full effect after oral protein: time-dependent concordance and discordance between human muscle protein synthesis and mtorc1 signaling. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;92:1080–8.
    1. Wilson GJ, Layman DK, Moulton CJ, Norton LE, Anthony TG, Proud CG, et al. Leucine or carbohydrate supplementation reduces AMPK and eef2 phosphorylation and extends postprandial muscle protein synthesis in rats. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2011;301:E1236–42.
    1. Kim IY, Schutzler S, Schrader A, Spencer HJ, Azhar G, Ferrando AA, et al. The anabolic response to a meal containing different amounts of protein is not limited by the maximal stimulation of protein synthesis in healthy young adults. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2016;310:E73–80.
    1. Arciero PJ, Ormsbee MJ, Gentile CL, Nindl BC, Brestoff JR, Ruby M. Increased protein intake and meal frequency reduces abdominal fat during energy balance and energy deficit. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2013;21:1357–1366. doi: 10.1002/oby.20296.
    1. Ruby M, Repka CP, Arciero PJ. Comparison of protein-pacing alone or with yoga/stretching and resistance training on glycemia, total and regional body composition, and aerobic fitness in overweight women. J Phys Act Health. 2016;13:754–764. doi: 10.1123/jpah.2015-0493.
    1. Arciero PJ, Ives SJ, Norton C, Escudero D, Minicucci O, O'brien G, et al. Protein-pacing and multi-component exercise training improves physical performance outcomes in exercise-trained women: the PRISE 3 study. Nutrients. 2016;8:6.
    1. Ives SJ, Norton C, Miller V, Minicucci O, Robinson J, O'brien G, et al. Multi-modal exercise training and protein-pacing enhances physical performance adaptations independent of growth hormone and bdnf but may be dependent on igf-1 in exercise-trained men. Growth Hormon IGF Res. 2017;32:60–70.
    1. Arciero PJ, Baur D, Connelly S, Ormsbee MJ. Timed-daily ingestion of whey protein and exercise training reduces visceral adipose tissue mass and improves insulin resistance: the PRISE study. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2014;117:1–10. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00152.2014.
    1. Lemon PW. Beyond the zone: protein needs of active individuals. J Am Coll Nutr. 2000;19(5 Suppl):513S–521S. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2000.10718974.
    1. Campbell WW, Barton ML Jr, Cyr-Campbell D, Davey SL, Beard JL, Parise G, et al. Effects of an omnivorous diet compared with a lactoovovegetarian diet on resistance-training-induced changes in body composition and skeletal muscle in older men. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;70:1032–9.
    1. Katsanos CS, Chinkes DL, Paddon-Jones D, Zhang XJ, Aarsland A, Wolfe RR. Whey protein ingestion in elderly persons results in greater muscle protein accrual than ingestion of its constituent essential amino acid content. Nutr Res. 2008;28:651–658. doi: 10.1016/j.nutres.2008.06.007.
    1. Cuthbertson D, Smith K, Babraj J, Leese G, Waddell T, Atherton P, et al. Anabolic signaling deficits underlie amino acid resistance of wasting, aging muscle. FASEB J. 2005;19:422–4.
    1. Norton LE, Layman DK. Leucine regulates translation initiation of protein synthesis in skeletal muscle after exercise. J Nutr. 2006;136:533S–537S.
    1. Blomstrand E. A role for branched-chain amino acids in reducing central fatigue. J Nutr. 2006;136:544S–547S.
    1. Davis JM. Carbohydrates, branched-chain amino acids, and endurance: the central fatigue hypothesis. Int J Sport Nutr. 1995;5(Suppl):S29–S38. doi: 10.1123/ijsn.5.s1.s29.
    1. Newsholme EA, Blomstrand E. Branched-chain amino acids and central fatigue. J Nutr. 2006;136(1 Suppl):274S–276S.
    1. Brosnan JT, Brosnan ME. Branched-chain amino acids: enzyme and substrate regulation. J Nutr. 2006;136(1 Suppl):207S–211S.
    1. Stoll B, Burrin DG. Measuring splanchnic amino acid metabolism in vivo using stable isotopic tracers. J Anim Sci. 2006;84(Suppl):E60–E72. doi: 10.2527/2006.8413_supplE60x.
    1. Norton L, Wilson GJ. Optimal protein intake to maximize muscle protein synthesis. AgroFood Industry Hi-Tech. 2009;20:54–57.
    1. Glynn EL, Fry CS, Drummond MJ, Timmerman KL, Dhanani S, Volpi E, et al. Excess leucine intake enhances muscle anabolic signaling but not net protein anabolism in young men and women. J Nutr. 2010;140:1970–6.
    1. Norton LE, Layman DK, Bunpo P, Anthony TG, Brana DV, Garlick PJ. The leucine content of a complete meal directs peak activation but not duration of skeletal muscle protein synthesis and mammalian target of rapamycin signaling in rats. J Nutr. 2009;139:1103–1109. doi: 10.3945/jn.108.103853.
    1. Pasiakos SM, Mcclung HL, Mcclung JP, Margolis LM, Andersen NE, Cloutier GJ, et al. Leucine-enriched essential amino acid supplementation during moderate steady state exercise enhances postexercise muscle protein synthesis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;94:809–18.
    1. Churchward-Venne TA, Burd NA, Mitchell CJ, West DW, Philp A, Marcotte GR, et al. Supplementation of a suboptimal protein dose with leucine or essential amino acids: effects on myofibrillar protein synthesis at rest and following resistance exercise in men. J Physiol. 2012;590:2751–65.
    1. Layman DK. Role of leucine in protein metabolism during exercise and recovery. Can J Appl Physiol. 2002;27:646–663. doi: 10.1139/h02-038.
    1. Cockburn E, Stevenson E, Hayes PR, Robson-Ansley P, Howatson G. Effect of milk-based carbohydrate-protein supplement timing on the attenuation of exercise-induced muscle damage. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2010;35:270–277. doi: 10.1139/H10-017.
    1. Wojcik JR, Walber-Rankin J, Smith LL, Gwazdauskas FC. Comparison of carbohydrate and milk-based beverages on muscle damage and glycogen following exercise. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2001;11:406–419. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.11.4.406.
    1. Watson P, Love TD, Maughan RJ, Shirreffs SM. A comparison of the effects of milk and a carbohydrate-electrolyte drink on the restoration of fluid balance and exercise capacity in a hot, humid environment. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2008;104:633–642. doi: 10.1007/s00421-008-0809-4.
    1. Boirie Y, Dangin M, Gachon P, Vasson MP, Maubois JL, Beaufrere B. Slow and fast dietary proteins differently modulate postprandial protein accretion. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1997;94:14930–14935. doi: 10.1073/pnas.94.26.14930.
    1. Dangin M, Boirie Y, Guillet C, Beaufrere B. Influence of the protein digestion rate on protein turnover in young and elderly subjects. J Nutr. 2002;132:3228S–3233S.
    1. Dangin M, Guillet C, Garcia-Rodenas C, Gachon P, Bouteloup-Demange C, Reiffers-Magnani K, et al. The rate of protein digestion affects protein gain differently during aging in humans. J Physiol. 2003;549(Pt 2):635–44.
    1. Wilson J, Wilson GJ. Contemporary issues in protein requirements and consumption for resistance trained athletes. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2006;3:7–27. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-3-1-7.
    1. Nair KS. Muscle protein turnover: methodological issues and the effect of aging. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 1995;50(Spec Issue):107–112.
    1. Cribb PJ, Williams AD, Carey MF, Hayes A. The effect of whey isolate and resistance training on strength, body composition, and plasma glutamine. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2006;16:494–509. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.16.5.494.
    1. Morifuji M, Sakai K, Sanbongi C, Sugiura K. Dietary whey protein increases liver and skeletal muscle glycogen levels in exercise-trained rats. Br J Nutr. 2005;93:439–445. doi: 10.1079/BJN20051373.
    1. Markus CR, Olivier B, De Haan EH. Whey protein rich in alpha-lactalbumin increases the ratio of plasma tryptophan to the sum of the other large neutral amino acids and improves cognitive performance in stress-vulnerable subjects. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;75:1051–1056.
    1. Minet-Ringuet J, Le Ruyet PM, Tome D, Even PC. A tryptophan-rich protein diet efficiently restores sleep after food deprivation in the rat. Behav Brain Res. 2004;152:335–340. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2003.10.018.
    1. Law BA, Reiter B. The isolation and bacteriostatic properties of lactoferrin from bovine milk whey. J Dairy Res. 1977;44:595–599. doi: 10.1017/S0022029900020550.
    1. Wang X, Ai T, Meng XL, Zhou J, Mao XY. In vitro iron absorption of alpha-lactalbumin hydrolysate-iron and beta-lactoglobulin hydrolysate-iron complexes. J Dairy Sci. 2014;97:2559–2566. doi: 10.3168/jds.2013-7461.
    1. Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Rimm EB, Manson JE, Ascherio A, Colditz GA, et al. A prospective study of egg consumption and risk of cardiovascular disease in men and women. JAMA. 1999;281:1387–94.
    1. Hasler CM. The changing face of functional foods. J Am Coll Nutr. 2000;19(Suppl 5):499S–506S. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2000.10718972.
    1. Safety assessment and potential health benefits of food components based on selected scientific criteria. ILSI North America technical committee on food components for health promotion. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 1999;39:203–316.
    1. Position of the American Dietetic Association Functional foods. J Am Diet Assoc. 1999;99:1278–1285. doi: 10.1016/S0002-8223(99)00314-4.
    1. Blusztajn JK. Choline, a vital amine. Science. 1998;281(5378):794–795. doi: 10.1126/science.281.5378.794.
    1. Handelman GJ, Nightingale ZD, Lichtenstein AH, Schaefer EJ, Blumberg JB. Lutein and zeaxanthin concentrations in plasma after dietary supplementation with egg yolk. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;70:247–251.
    1. Symons TB, Schutzler SE, Cocke TL, Chinkes DL, Wolfe RR, Paddon-Jones D. Aging does not impair the anabolic response to a protein-rich meal. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86:451–456.
    1. Fogelholm M. Dairy products, meat and sports performance. Sports Med. 2003;33:615–631. doi: 10.2165/00007256-200333080-00006.
    1. Kreider RB, Wilborn CD, Taylor L, Campbell B, Almada AL, Collins R, et al. Issn exercise & sports nutrition review: research & recommendations. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2010;7:7.
    1. Harris RC, Lowe JA, Warnes K, Orme CE. The concentration of creatine in meat, offal and commercial dog food. Res Vet Sci. 1997;62:58–62. doi: 10.1016/S0034-5288(97)90181-8.
    1. Shomrat A, Weinstein Y, Katz A. Effect of creatine feeding on maximal exercise performance in vegetarians. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2000;82:321–325. doi: 10.1007/s004210000222.
    1. Burke DG, Chilibeck PD, Parise G, Candow DG, Mahoney D, Tarnopolsky M. Effect of creatine and weight training on muscle creatine and performance in vegetarians. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003;35:1946–1955. doi: 10.1249/01.MSS.0000093614.17517.79.
    1. Sharp MH, Lowery RP, Shields KA, Lane JR, Gray JL, Partl JM, Hayes DW, Wilson GJ, Hollmer CA, Minivich JR, and Wilson JM. The effects of beef, chicken, or whey protein post-workout on body composition and muscle performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2017. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000001936. [Epub ahead of print]
    1. Larsson SC, Wolk K, Brismar K, Wolk A. Association of diet with serum insulin-like growth factor i in middle-aged and elderly men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;81:1163–1167.
    1. Juul A, Scheike T, Davidsen M, Gyllenborg J, Jorgensen T. Low serum insulin-like growth factor i is associated with increased risk of ischemic heart disease: a population-based case-control study. Circulation. 2002;106:939–944. doi: 10.1161/.
    1. Cederroth CR, Vinciguerra M, Gjinovci A, Kuhne F, Klein M, Cederroth M, et al. Dietary phytoestrogens activate amp-activated protein kinase with improvement in lipid and glucose metabolism. Diabetes. 2008;57:1176–85.
    1. Gorissen SH, Horstman AM, Franssen R, Crombag JJ, Langer H, Bierau J, et al. Ingestion of wheat protein increases in vivo muscle protein synthesis rates in healthy older men in a randomized trial. J Nutr. 2016;146:1651–9.
    1. Purpura M, Lowery RP, Joy JM, De Souza EO, Kalman D. A comparison of blood amino acid concentrations following ingestion of rice and whey protein isolate: a double-blind, crossover study. J Nutr Health Sci. 2014;1:306.
    1. Paul GL. The rationale for consuming protein blends in sports nutrition. J Am Coll Nutr. 2009;28(sup4):464S–472S. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2009.10718113.
    1. Reidy PT, Walker DK, Dickinson JM, Gundermann DM, Drummond MJ, Timmerman KL, et al. Protein blend ingestion following resistance exercise promotes human muscle protein synthesis. J Nutr. 2013;143:410–6.
    1. Reidy PT, Walker DK, Dickinson JM, Gundermann DM, Drummond MJ, Timmerman KL, et al. Soy-dairy protein blend and whey protein ingestion after resistance exercise increases amino acid transport and transporter expression in human skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol (Bethesda, Md: 1985). 2014;116:1353–64.
    1. Reidy PT, Borack MS, Markofski MM, Dickinson JM, Deer RR, Husaini SH, et al. Protein supplementation has minimal effects on muscle adaptations during resistance exercise training in young men: a double-blind randomized clinical trial. J Nutr. 2016;146:1660–9.
    1. Norton LE, Rupassar I, Layman DK, Garlic PJ. Isonitrogenous protein sources with different leucine contents differentially effect translation initiation and protein synthesis in skeletal muscle. FASEB J. 2008;22(Supplement 1):869–865.
    1. Norton LE, Rupassara I, Garlick PJ, Layman DK. Leucine contents of isonitrogenout protein sources predict post prandial muscle protein synthesis in rats fed a complete meal. FASEB J. 2009;23(Supplement 1):227–224.
    1. Renan M, Mekmene O, Famelart MH, Guyomarc'h F, Arnoult-Delest V, Paquet D, et al. Ph-dependent behaviour of soluble protein aggregates formed during heat-treatment of milk at ph 6.5 or 7.2. J Dairy Res. 2006;73:79–86.
    1. Silk DB, Grimble GK, Rees RG. Protein digestion and amino acid and peptide absorption. Proc Nutr Soc. 1985;44:63–72. doi: 10.1079/PNS19850011.
    1. Calbet JA, Holst JJ. Gastric emptying, gastric secretion and enterogastrone response after administration of milk proteins or their peptide hydrolysates in humans. Eur J Nutr. 2004;43:127–139. doi: 10.1007/s00394-004-0448-4.
    1. Calbet JA, Maclean DA. Plasma glucagon and insulin responses depend on the rate of appearance of amino acids after ingestion of different protein solutions in humans. J Nutr. 2002;132:2174–2182.
    1. Lockwood CM, Roberts MD, Dalbo VJ, Smith-Ryan AE, Kendall KL, Moon JR, et al. Effects of hydrolyzed whey versus other whey protein supplements on the physiological response to 8 weeks of resistance exercise in college-aged males. J Am Coll Nutr. 2017;36:16–27.
    1. Morifuji M, Ishizaka M, Baba S, Fukuda K, Matsumoto H, Koga J, et al. Comparison of different sources and degrees of hydrolysis of dietary protein: effect on plasma amino acids, dipeptides, and insulin responses in human subjects. J Agric Food Chem. 2010;58:8788–97.
    1. Thomson RL, Buckley JD. Protein hydrolysates and tissue repair. Nutr Res Rev. 2011;24:191–197. doi: 10.1017/S0954422411000084.
    1. Buckley JD, Thomson RL, Coates AM, Howe PR, Denichilo MO, Rowney MK. Supplementation with a whey protein hydrolysate enhances recovery of muscle force-generating capacity following eccentric exercise. J Sci Med Sport. 2010;13:178–181. doi: 10.1016/j.jsams.2008.06.007.
    1. Boyer N, Chuang JL, Gipner D. An acute care geriatric unit. Nurs Manag. 1986;17:22–25.
    1. Cooke MB, Rybalka E, Stathis CG, Cribb PJ, Hayes A. Whey protein isolate attenuates strength decline after eccentrically-induced muscle damage in healthy individuals. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2010;7:30. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-7-30.
    1. Morifuji M, Kanda A, Koga J, Kawanaka K, Higuchi M. Post-exercise carbohydrate plus whey protein hydrolysates supplementation increases skeletal muscle glycogen level in rats. Amino Acids. 2010;38:1109–1115. doi: 10.1007/s00726-009-0321-0.
    1. Van Loon LJ, Kies AK, Saris WH. Protein and protein hydrolysates in sports nutrition. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2007;17:S1–S4. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.17.s1.s1.
    1. Saunders MJ. Coingestion of carbohydrate-protein during endurance exercise: influence on performance and recovery. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2007;17:S87–S103. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.17.s1.s87.
    1. Borgstrom B, Dahlqvist A, Lundh G, Sjovall J. Studies of intestinal digestion and absorption in the human. J Clin Invest. 1957;36:1521–1536. doi: 10.1172/JCI103549.
    1. Minevich J, Olson MA, Mannion JP, Boublik JH, Mcpherson JO, Lowery RP, et al. Digestive enzymes reduce quality differences between plant and animal proteins: an double-blind crossover study. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2015;12(Suppl 1):P26.
    1. Fouque D, Laville M. Low protein diets for chronic kidney disease in non diabetic adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;3
    1. Martin WF, Armstrong LE, Rodriguez NR. Dietary protein intake and renal function. Nutr Metab (Lond) 2005;2:25. doi: 10.1186/1743-7075-2-25.
    1. Poortmans JR, Dellalieux O. Do regular high protein diets have potential health risks on kidney function in athletes? Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2000;10:28–38. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.10.1.28.
    1. World Health Organization . Technical report series 935. Protein and amino acid requirements in human nutrition: report of a joint fao/who/uni expert consultation. 2011.
    1. Brandle E, Sieberth HG, Hautmann RE. Effect of chronic dietary protein intake on the renal function in healthy subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1996;50:734–740.
    1. Antonio J, Ellerbroek A, Silver T, Orris S, Scheiner M, Gonzalez A, et al. A high protein diet (3.4 g/kg/d) combined with a heavy resistance training program improves body composition in healthy trained men and women--a follow-up investigation. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2015;12:39.
    1. Antonio J, Ellerbroek A, Silver T, Vargas L, Peacock C. The effects of a high protein diet on indices of health and body composition--a crossover trial in resistance-trained men. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2016;13:3. doi: 10.1186/s12970-016-0114-2.
    1. Antonio J, Ellerbroek A, Silver T, Vargas L, Tamayo A, Buehn R, et al. A high protein diet has no harmful effects: a one-year crossover study in resistance-trained males. J Nutr Metab. 2016;2016:9104792.
    1. Antonio J, Peacock CA, Ellerbroek A, Fromhoff B, Silver T. The effects of consuming a high protein diet (4.4 g/kg/d) on body composition in resistance-trained individuals. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2014;11:19. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-11-19.
    1. Wolfe RR, Cifelli AM, Kostas G, Kim IY. Optimizing protein intake in adults: interpretation and application of the recommended dietary allowance compared with the acceptable macronutrient distribution range. Adv Nutr. 2017;8:266–275. doi: 10.3945/an.116.013821.

Source: PubMed

Sponsors and Collaborators

Medical Conditions

Drug Interventions

3
Subscribe