Advancing understanding of executive function impairments and psychopathology: bridging the gap between clinical and cognitive approaches

Hannah R Snyder, Akira Miyake, Benjamin L Hankin, Hannah R Snyder, Akira Miyake, Benjamin L Hankin

Abstract

Executive function (EF) is essential for successfully navigating nearly all of our daily activities. Of critical importance for clinical psychological science, EF impairments are associated with most forms of psychopathology. However, despite the proliferation of research on EF in clinical populations, with notable exceptions clinical and cognitive approaches to EF have remained largely independent, leading to failures to apply theoretical and methodological advances in one field to the other field and hindering progress. First, we review the current state of knowledge of EF impairments associated with psychopathology and limitations to the previous research in light of recent advances in understanding and measuring EF. Next, we offer concrete suggestions for improving EF assessment. Last, we suggest future directions, including integrating modern models of EF with state of the art, hierarchical models of dimensional psychopathology as well as translational implications of EF-informed research on clinical science.

Keywords: executive function; inhibition; methods; psychopathology; shifting; transdiagnostic; working memory.

Figures

FIGURE 1
FIGURE 1
Unity/diversity model of EF. Two complimentary ways of representing the unity/diversity model (Adapted from Friedman et al., 2011). In both latent variable models, individual tasks are combined to form latent factors. Numbers on arrows are standardized factor loadings (range 1 to -1), that indicate the extent to which each task is predicted by the latent factor. Those on curved double-headed arrows are correlations between the latent variables, which indicate how strongly they are related. (A) The updating, shifting, and inhibition components are substantially correlated (unity), but are separable (i.e., not correlated 1.0; diversity). (B) Unity and diversity are more clearly shown with a bifactor model. All nine tasks load onto a common EF factor (unity), and updating and shifting tasks also load onto their respective specific factors (diversity). Note that there is no inhibition-specific factor (i.e., inhibition task variance is fully accounted for by common EF).
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 2
Task impurity problem. A score on an EF task is composed of (A) systematic variance attributable to the specific aspect of EF targeted by that task (e.g., shifting-specific or updating-specific variance), (B) systematic variance attributable to common EF (i.e., variance shared across multiple types of EF tasks, hypothesized to be related to task-goal maintenance), (C) systematic variance attributable to non-EF aspects of the task (e.g., articulation speed, visual processing), and (D) non-systematic (error) variance. Use of single tasks to measure EF is thus problematic because this task-impurity makes interpreting the results difficult and because the amount of variance attributable to EF (A,B) can be relatively small compared to non-EF variance (C,D).

References

    1. Abela J. R. Z., Hankin B. L. (2011). Rumination as a vulnerability factor to depression during the transition from early to middle adolescence: a multiwave longitudinal study. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 120 259–271 10.1037/a0022796
    1. Abolfazli R., Hosseini M., Ghanizadeh A., Ghaleiha A., Tabrizi M., Akhondzadeh S. (2011). Double-blind randomized parallel-group clinical trial of efficacy of the combination fluoxetine plus modafinil versus fluoxetine plus placebo in the treatment of major depression. Depress. Anxiety 28 297–302 10.1002/da.20801
    1. Abramovitch A., Abramowitz J. S., Mittelman A. (2013). The neuropsychology of adult obsessive–compulsive disorder: a meta-analysis. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 33 1163–1171 10.1016/j.cpr.2013.09.004
    1. Abwender D. A., Swan J. G., Bowerman J. T., Connolly S. W. (2001). Qualitative analysis of verbal fluency output: review and comparison of several scoring methods. Assessment 8 323–338 10.1177/107319110100800308
    1. Airaksinen E., Larsson M., Forsell Y. (2005). Neuropsychological functions in anxiety disorders in population-based samples: evidence of episodic memory dysfunction. J. Psychiatr. Res. 39 207–214 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2004.06.001
    1. Aldao A., Nolen-Hoeksema S., Schweizer S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: a meta-analytic review. Clin. Psychol. Rev 30 217–237 10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004
    1. Alderson R. M., Kasper L. J., Hudec K. L., Patros C. H. G. (2013). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and working memory in adults: a meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology 27 287–302 10.1037/a0032371
    1. Alderson R. M., Rapport M. D., Kofler M. J. (2007). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and behavioral inhibition: a meta-analytic review of the stop-signal paradigm. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 35 745–758 10.1007/s10802-007-9131-6
    1. Altamirano L. J., Miyake A., Whitmer A. J. (2010). When mental inflexibility facilitates executive control: beneficial side effects of ruminative tendencies on goal maintenance. Psychol. Sci. 21 1377–1382 10.1177/0956797610381505
    1. Andreotti C., Thigpen J. E., Dunn M. J., Watson K., Potts J., Compas B. E. (2013). Cognitive reappraisal and secondary control coping: associations with working memory, positive and negative affect, and symptoms of anxiety/depression. Anxiety Stress Coping 26 20–35 10.1080/10615806.2011.631526
    1. Aron A. R. (2007). The neural basis of inhibition in cognitive control. Neuroscientist 13 214–228 10.1177/1073858407299288
    1. Aron A. R. (2008). Progress in executive-function research. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 17 124–129 10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00561.x
    1. Arts B. M. G., Jabben N., Krabbendam L., van Os J. (2008). Meta-analyses of cognitive functioning in euthymic bipolar patients and their first-degree relatives. Psychol. Med. 38 771–785 10.1017/S0033291707001675
    1. Aupperle R. L., Melrose A. J., Stein M. B., Paulus M. P. (2012). Executive function and PTSD: disengaging from trauma. J. Affect. Disord. 62 686–694 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.02.008
    1. Baddeley A. (2012). Working memory: theories, models, and controversies. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 63 1–29 10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100422
    1. Baddeley A. D. (1996). Exploring the central executive. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. Sect. 49A 5–28 10.1080/713755608
    1. Baddeley A. D., Repovs G. (2006). The multi-component model of working memory: explorations in experimental cognitive psychology. Neuroscience 139 5–21 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.12.061
    1. Baldacchino A., Balfour D. J. K., Passetti F., Humphris G., Matthews K. (2012). Neuropsychological consequences of chronic opioid use: a quantitative review and meta-analysis. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 36 2056–2068 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.06.006
    1. Bálint S., Czobor P., Komlósi S., Mészáros Á., Simon V., Bitter I. (2009). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): gender- and age-related differences in neurocognition. Psychol. Med. 39 1337–1345 10.1017/S0033291708004236
    1. Banich M. T. (2009). Executive function: the search for an integrated account. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 18 89–94 10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01615.x
    1. Barch D. M. (2005). The cognitive neuroscience of schizophrenia. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 1 321–353 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143959
    1. Bar-Haim Y., Lamy D., Pergamin L., Bakermans-Kransberg M. J., van IJzendoorn M. H. (2007). Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: a meta-analytic study. Psychol. Bull. 133 1–24 10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.1
    1. Barkley R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychol. Bull. 121 65–94 10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.65
    1. Barkley R. A., Fischer M. (2011). Predicting impairment in major life activities and occupational functioning in hyperactive children as adults: self-reported executive function (EF) deficits versus EF tests. Dev. Neuropsychol. 36 137–161 10.1080/87565641.2010.549877
    1. Berch D. B., Krikorian R., Huha E. M. (1998). The corsi block-tapping task: methodological and theoretical considerations. Brain Cogn. 38 317–338 10.1006/brcg.1998.1039
    1. Best J. R., Miller P. H., Jones L. L. (2009). Executive functions after age 5: changes and correlates. Dev. Rev. 29 180–200 10.1016/j.dr.2009.05.002
    1. Bishop S. J. (2008). Trait anxiety and impoverished prefrontal control of attention. Nat. Neurosci. 12 92–98 10.1038/nn.2242
    1. Bokat C. E., Goldberg T. E. (2003). Letter and category fluency in schizophrenic patients: a meta-analysis. Schizophr. Res. 64 73–78 10.1016/S0920-9964(02)00282-7
    1. Boldrini M., Del Pace L., Placidi G. P. A., Keilp J., Ellis S. P., Cappa S. F. (2005). Selective cognitive deficits in obsessive-compulsive disorder compared to panic disorder with agoraphobia. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 111 150–158 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2004.00247.x
    1. Boonstra M. A., Oosterlaan J., Sergeant J. A., Buitelaar J. K. (2005). Executive functioning in adult ADHD: a meta-analytic review. Psychol. Med. 35 1097–1108 10.1017/S003329170500499X
    1. Bora E., Yucel M., Pantelis C. (2009). Cognitive endophenotypes of bipolar disorder: a meta-analysis of neuropsychological deficits in euthymic patients and their first-degree relatives. J. Affect. Disord. 113 1–20 10.1016/j.jad.2008.06.009
    1. Bora E., Yücel M., Pantelis C., Berk M. (2011). Meta-analytic review of neurocognition in bipolar II disorder. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 123 165–174 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2010.01638.x
    1. Brunoni A. R., Vanderhasselt M.-A. (2014). Working memory improvement with non-invasive brain stimulation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Brain Cogn. 86 1–9 10.1016/j.bandc.2014.01.008
    1. Buckholtz J. W., Meyer-Lindenberg A. (2012). Psychopathology and the human connectome: toward a transdiagnostic model of risk for mental illness. Neuron 74 990–1004 10.1016/j.neuron.2012.06.002
    1. Campbell S. B., Stauffenberg C. (2008). Delay and inhibition as early predictors of ADHD symptoms in third grade. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 37 1–15 10.1007/s10802-008-9270-4
    1. Cannon M., Moffitt T. E., Caspi A., Murray R. M., Harrington H., Poulton R. (2006). Neuropsychological performance at the age of 13 years and adult schizophreniform disorder: prospective birth cohort study. Br. J. Psychiatry 189 463–464 10.1192/bjp.bp.105.020552
    1. Caspi A., Houts R. M., Belsky D. W., Goldman-Mellor S. J., Harrington H., Moffitt T. E. (2014). The p factor: one general psychopathology factor in the structure of psychiatric disorders? Clin. Psychol. Sci. 2 119–137 10.1177/2167702613497473
    1. Castner S. A., Williams G. V. (2007). Tuning the engine of cognition: a focus on NMDA/D1 receptor interactions in prefrontal cortex. Brain Cogn. 63 94–122 10.1016/j.bandc.2006.11.002
    1. Chatham C. H., Claus E. D., Kim A., Curran T., Banich M. T., Munakata Y. (2012). Cognitive control reflects context monitoring, not motoric stopping, in response inhibition. PLoS ONE 7:e31546 10.1371/journal.pone.0031546
    1. Chiesa A., Calati R., Serretti A. (2011). Does mindfulness training improve cognitive abilities? A systematic review of neuropsychological findings. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 31 449–464 10.1016/j.cpr.2010.11.003
    1. Christopher G., MacDonald J. (2005). The impact of clinical depression on working memory. Cogn. Neuropsychiatry 10 379–399 10.1080/13546800444000128
    1. Cicerone K., Levin H., Malec J., Stuss D. (2006). Cognitive rehabilitation interventions for executive function: moving from bench to bedside in patients with traumatic brain injury. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 18 1212–1222 10.1162/jocn.2006.18.7.1212
    1. Cisler J. M., Walitzky-Tayler K. B., Adams T. G., Babson K. A., Badour C. L., Willems J. L. (2011). The emotional Stroop task and posttraumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis. Clin. Psychol. Rev 31 817–828 10.1016/j.cpr.2011.03.007
    1. Cohen L. J., Hollander E., DeCaria C. M., Stein D. J., Simeon D., Liebowitz M. R., et al. (1996). Specificity of neuropsychological impairment in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a comparison with social phobic and normal control subjects. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 8 82–85 10.1176/jnp.8.1.82
    1. Conway A. R., Kane M., Bunting M. (2005). Working memory span tasks: a methodological review and user’s guide. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 12 769–786 10.3758/BF03196772
    1. Crowe S. F., Matthews C., Walkenhorst E. (2007). Relationship between worry, anxiety and thought suppression and the components of working memory in a non-clinical sample. Aust. Psychol. 42 170–177 10.1080/00050060601089462
    1. D’Alcante C. C., Diniz J. B., Fossaluza V., Batistuzzo M. C., Lopes A. C., Hoexter M. Q. (2012). Neuropsychological predictors of response to randomized treatment in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 39 310–317 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.07.002
    1. de la Vega A., Brown M. S., Snyder H. R., Singel D., Munakata Y., Banich M. T. (2014). Individual differences in the balance of GABA to glutamate in pFC predict the ability to select among competing options. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 26 2490–2502 10.1162/jocn-a-00655
    1. De Lissnyder E., Koster E. H. W., Goubert L., Onraedt T., Vanderhasselt M.-A., De Raedt R. (2012). Cognitive control moderates the association between stress and rumination. J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry 43 519–525 10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.07.004
    1. De Panfilis C., Meehan K. B., Cain N. M., Clarkin J. F. (2013). The relationship between effortful control, current psychopathology and interpersonal difficulties in adulthood. Compr. Psychiatry 54 454–461 10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.12.015
    1. Deckersbach T., Nierenberg A. A., Kessler R., Lund H. G., Ametrano R. M., Dougherty D. (2010). Cognitive rehabilitation for bipolar disorder: an open trial for employed patients with residual depressive symptoms. CNS Neurosci. Ther. 16 298–307 10.1111/j.1755-5949.2009.00110.x
    1. Demeyer I., De Lissnyder E., Koster E. H. W., De Raedt R. (2012). Rumination mediates the relationship between impaired cognitive control for emotional information and depressive symptoms: a prospective study in remitted depressed adults. Behav. Res. Ther. 50 292–297 10.1016/j.brat.2012.02.012
    1. Demirtas-Tatlidede A., Vahabzadeh-Hagh A. M., Pascual-Leone A. (2013). Can noninvasive brain stimulation enhance cognition in neuropsychiatric disorders? Neuropharmacology 64 566–578 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.06.020
    1. Diamond A. (2013). Executive functions. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 64 135–168 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
    1. Dickinson D., Ramsey M. E., Gold J. M. (2007). Overlooking the obvious: a meta-analytic comparison of digit symbol coding tasks and other cognitive measures in schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 64 532–542 10.1001/archpsyc.64.5.532
    1. Dimidjian S., Barrera M., Martell C., Muñoz R. F., Lewinsohn P. M. (2011). The origins and current status of behavioral activation treatments for depression. Ann. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 7 1–38 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104535
    1. Doughty O. J., Done D. J. (2009). Is semantic memory impaired in schizophrenia? A systematic review and meta-analysis of 91 studies. Cogn. Neuropsychiatry 14 473–509 10.1080/13546800903073291
    1. Duncan J., Johnson R., Swales M., Freer C. (1997). Frontal lobe deficits after head injury: unity and diversity of function. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 14 713–741 10.1080/026432997381420
    1. Emmelkamp P. M. G., David D., Beckers T., Muris P., Cuijpers P., Vervliet B. (2014). Advancing psychotherapy and evidence-based psychological interventions. Int. J. Methods Psychiatr. Res. 23 58–91 10.1002/mpr.1411
    1. Engle R. W., Kane M. J. (2003). Executive attention, working memory capacity, and a two-factor theory of cognitive control. Psychol. Learn. Motiv. 44 145–199 10.1016/s0079-7421(03)44005-x
    1. Ersche K. D., Turton A. J., Chamberlain S. R., Muller U., Bullmore E. T., Robbins T. W. (2012). Cognitive dysfunction and anxious-impulsive personality traits are endophenotypes for drug dependence. Am. J. Psychiatry 169 926–936 10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.11091421
    1. Eysenck M. W., Derakshan N. (2011). New perspectives in attentional control theory. Pers. Individ. Dif. 50 955–960 10.1016/j.paid.2010.08.019
    1. Eysenck M., Derakshan N., Santos R., Calvo M. G. (2007). Anxiety and cognitive performance: attentional control theory. Emotion 7 336–353 10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.336
    1. Falkowski J., Atchison T., DeButte-Smith M., Weiner M. F., O’Bryant S. (2014). Executive functioning and the metabolic syndrome: a project FRONTIER study. Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. 29 47–53 10.1093/arclin/act078
    1. Fan J., McCandliss B. D., Sommer T., Raz A., Posner M. I. (2002). Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 14 340–347 10.1162/089892902317361886
    1. Fernandez-Serrano M. J., Pérez-García M., Verdejo-Garcéa A. (2011). What are the specific vs. generalized effects of drugs of abuse on neuropsychological performance? Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 35 377–406 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.04.008
    1. Forbes N. F., Carrick L. A., McIntosh A. M., Lawrie S. M. (2009). Working memory in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Med. 39 889–905 10.1017/S0033291708004558
    1. Frazier T. W., Demaree H. A., Youngstrom E. A. (2004). Meta-analysis of intellectual and neuropsychological test performance in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychology 18 534–555 10.1037/0894-4105.18.3.543.supp
    1. Friedman N. P., Haberstick B. C., Willcutt E. G., Miyake A., Young S. E., Corley R. P., et al. (2007). Greater attention problems during childhood predict poorer executive functioning in late adolescence. Psychol. Sci. 18 893–900 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01997.x
    1. Friedman N. P., Miyake A. (2004). The relations among inhibition and interference control functions: a latent-variable analysis. J. Exp. Psychol. 133 101–135 10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.101
    1. Friedman N. P., Miyake A., Robinson J. L., Hewitt J. K. (2011). Developmental trajectories in toddlers’ self-restraint predict individual differences in executive functions 14 years later: a behavioral genetic analysis. Dev. Psychol. 47 1410–1430 10.1037/a0023750
    1. Friedman N. P., Miyake A., Young S. E., DeFries J. C., Corley R. P., Hewitt J. K. (2008). Individual differences in executive functions are almost entirely genetic in origin. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 137 201–225 10.1037/0096-3445.137.2.201
    1. Gigante A. D., Bond D. J., Lafer B., Lam R. W., Young L. T., Yatham L. N. (2012). Brain glutamate levels measured by magnetic resonance spectroscopy in patients with bipolar disorder: a meta-analysis. Bipolar Disord. 14 478–487 10.1111/j.1399-5618.2012.01033.x
    1. Gilbertson M. W., Paulus L. A., Williston S. K., Gurvits T. V., Lasko N. B., Pitman R. K., et al. (2006). Neurocognitive function in monozygotic twins discordant for combat exposure: relationship to posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 115 484–495 10.1037/0021-843X.115.3.484
    1. Gladsjo J. A., Rapaport M. H., McKinney R., Lucas J. A., Rabin A., Judd L. L. (1998). A neuropsychological study of panic disorder: negative findings. J. Affect. Disord. 49 123–131 10.1016/S0165-0327(98)00006-8
    1. Goel V., Grafman J. (1995). Are the frontal lobes implicated in “planning” functions? Interpreting data from the Tower of Hanoi. Neuropsychologia 33 623–642 10.1016/0028-3932(95)90866-P
    1. Gooding D. C., Braun J. G., Studer J. A. (2006). Attentional network task performance in patients with schizophrenia–spectrum disorders: evidence of a specific deficit. Schizophr. Res. 88 169–178 10.1016/j.schres.2006.07.009
    1. Goschke T. (2000). “Involuntary persistence and intentional reconfiguration in task-set switching,” in Control of Cognitive Processes eds Monsell S., Driver J. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press) 331–355.
    1. Goschke T. (2014). Dysfunctions of decision-making and cognitive control as transdiagnostic mechanisms of mental disorders: advances, gaps, and needs in current research. Int. J. Methods Psychiatr. Res. 23 41–57 10.1002/mpr.1410
    1. Gruber S. A., Rosso I. M., Yurgelun-Todd D. (2008). Neuropsychological performance predicts clinical recovery in bipolar patients. J. Affect. Disord. 105 253–260 10.1016/j.jad.2007.04.014
    1. Hahn-Markowitz J., Manor I., Maeir A. (2011). Effectiveness of cognitive-functional (Cog-Fun) intervention with children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a pilot study. Am. J. Occup. Ther. 65 384–392 10.5014/ajot.2011.000901
    1. Hall P. A., Elias L. J., Crossley M. (2006). Neurocognitive influences on health behavior in a community sample. Health Psychol. 25 778–782 10.1037/0278-6133.25.6.778
    1. Heeren A., De Raedt R., Koster E. H. W., Philippot P. (2013). The (neuro)cognitive mechanisms behind attention bias modification in anxiety: proposals based on theoretical accounts of attentional bias. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 7:119 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00119
    1. Heeren A., Van Broeck N., Philippot P. (2009). The effects of mindfulness on executive processes and autobiographical memory specificity. Behav. Res. Ther. 47 403–409 10.1016/j.brat.2009.01.017
    1. Henry J., Crawford J. (2005). A meta-analytic review of verbal fluency deficits in schizophrenia relative to other neurocognitive deficits. Cogn. Neuropsychiatry 10 1–33 10.1080/13546800344000309
    1. Hervey A. S., Epstein J. N., Curry J. F. (2004). Neuropsychology of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology 18 485–503 10.1037/0894-4105.18.3.485
    1. Hood S., Melichar J., Taylor L., Kalk N., Edwards T., Nutt D. J. (2010). Noradrenergic function in generalized anxiety disorder: impact of treatment with venlafaxine on the physiological and psychological responses to clonidine challenge. J. Psychopharmacol. 25 78–86 10.1177/0269881109359099
    1. Jurado M. B., Rosselli M. (2007). The elusive nature of executive functions: a review of our current understanding. Neuropsychol. Rev. 17 213–233 10.1007/s11065-007-9040-z
    1. Kane M. J., Conway A. R. A., Miura T. K., Colflesh G. J. H. (2007). Working memory, attention control, and the n-back task: a question of construct validity. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 33 615–622 10.1037/0278-7393.33.3.615
    1. Kazdin A. E. (2007). Mediators and mechanisms of change in psychotherapy research. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 3 1–27 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091432
    1. Kim Y.-K., Lee A.-R., Hur J.-W., Yoon H.-K., Lee B.-H., Ko Y.-H. (2008). Cognitive factors for predicting treatment response in schizophrenic patients: one-year follow-up study. Psychiatry Invest. 5 106–114 10.4306/pi.2008.5.2.106
    1. Kluwe-Schiavon B., Sanvicente-Vieira B., Kristensen C. H., Grassi-Oliveira R. (2013). Executive functions rehabilitation for schizophrenia: a critical systematic review. J. Psychiatr. Res. 47 91–104 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.10.001
    1. Krystal J. H., Bennett A., Abi-Saab D., Belger A., Karper L. P., Charney D. S. (2001). Dissociation of ketamine effects on rule acquisition and rule implementation: possible relevance to NMDA receptor contributions to executive cognitive functions. Biol. Psychiatry 47 137–143 10.1016/S0006-3223(99)00097-9
    1. Krystal J. H., Sanacora G., Duman R. S. (2014). Rapid-Acting glutamatergic antidepressants: the path to ketamine and beyond. Biol. Psychiatry 73 1133–1141 10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.03.026
    1. Kurtz M. M., Gerraty R. T. (2009). A meta-analytic investigation of neurocognitive deficits in bipolar illness: profile and effects of clinical state. Neuropsychology 23 551–562 10.1037/a0016277
    1. Lahey B. B., Applegate B., Hakes J. K., Zald D. H., Hariri A. R., Rathouz P. J. (2012). Is there a general factor of prevalent psychopathology during adulthood? J. Abnorm. Psychol. 121 971–977 10.1037/a0028355
    1. Lansbergen M. M., Kenemans J. L., van Engeland H. (2007). Stroop interference and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychology 21 251–262 10.1037/0894-4105.21.2.251
    1. Lehto J. E., Juujarvi P., Kooistra L., Pulkkinen L. (2003). Dimensions of executive functioning: evidence from children. Br. J. Dev. Psychol. 21 59–80 10.1348/026151003321164627
    1. Lijffijt M., Kenemans J. L., Verbaten M. N., van Engeland H. (2005). A meta-analytic review of stopping performance in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: deficient inhibitory motor control? J. Abnorm. Psychology 114 216–222 10.1037/0021-843X.114.2.216
    1. Luykx J. J., Laban K. G., van den Heuvel M. P., Boks M. P. M., Mandl R. C. W., Kahn R. S., et al. (2012). Region and state specific glutamate downregulation in major depressive disorder: a meta-analysis of 1H-MRS findings. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 36 198–205 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.05.014
    1. Mann Wrobel M. C., Carreno J. T., Dickinson D. (2011). Meta-analysis of neuropsychological functioning in euthymic bipolar disorder: an update and investigation of moderator variables. Bipolar Disord. 13 334–342 10.1111/j.1399-5618.2011.00935.x
    1. Mantella R. C., Butters M. A., Dew M. A., Mulsant B. H., Begley A. E., Lenze E. J. (2007). Cognitive impairment in late-life generalized anxiety Disorder. Am. J. Geriat. Psychiatry 15 673–679 10.1097/JGP.0b013e31803111f2
    1. Maurage P., de Timary P., Billieux J., Collignon M., Heeren A. (2014). Attentional alterations in alcohol dependence are underpinned by specific executive control deficits. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 38 2105–2112 10.1111/acer.12444
    1. McLaughlin K. A., Nolen-Hoeksema S. (2011). Rumination as a transdiagnostic factor in depression and anxiety. Behav. Res. Ther. 49 186–193 10.1016/j.brat.2010.12.006
    1. McLennan S. N., Mathias J. L. (2010). The depression-executive dysfunction (DED) syndrome and response to antidepressants: a meta-analytic review. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 25 933–944 10.1002/gps.2431
    1. McRae K., Jacobs S. E., Ray R. D., John O. P., Gross J. J. (2012). Individual differences in reappraisal ability: links to reappraisal frequency, well-being, and cognitive control. J. Res. Pers. 46 2–7 10.1016/j.jrp.2011.10.003
    1. Menzies L., Achard S., Chamberlain S. R., Fineberg N., Chen C.-H., Bullmore E. (2007). Neurocognitive endophenotypes of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Brain 130 3223–3236 10.1093/brain/awm205
    1. Mesholam-Gately R. I., Giuliano A. J., Goff K. P., Faraone S. V., Seidman L. J. (2009). Neurocognition in first-episode schizophrenia: a meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology 23 315–336 10.1037/a0014708
    1. Miller M. R., Giesbrecht G. F., Muller U., McInerney R. J., Kerns K. A. (2012a). A latent variable approach to determining the structure of executive function in preschool children. J. Cogn. Dev. 13 395–423 10.1080/15248372.2011.585478
    1. Miller M., Nevado-Montenegro A. J., Hinshaw S. P. (2012b). childhood executive function continues to predict outcomes in young adult females with and without childhood-diagnosed ADHD. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 40 657–668 10.1007/s10802-011-9599-y
    1. Miyake A., Friedman N. P. (2012). The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: four general conclusions. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 21 8–14 10.1177/0963721411429458
    1. Miyake A., Friedman N. P., Emerson M. J., Witzki A. H., Howerter A., Wager T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: a latent variable analysis. Cogn. Psychol. 41 49–100 10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
    1. Möhler H. (2012). The GABA system in anxiety and depression and its therapeutic potential. Neuropharmacology 62 42–53 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.08.040
    1. Mohlman J., Gorman J. M. (2005). The role of executive functioning in CBT: a pilot study with anxious older adults. Behav. Res. Ther. 43 447–465 10.1016/j.brat.2004.03.007
    1. Munakata Y., Herd S. A., Chatham C. H., Depue B. E., Banich M. T., O’Reilly R. C. (2011). A unified framework for inhibitory control. Trends Cogn. Sci. (Regul. Ed.) 15 453–459 10.1016/j.tics.2011.07.011
    1. Murrough J. W., Iacoviello B., Neumeister A., Charney D. S., Iosifescu D. V. (2011). Cognitive dysfunction in depression: neurocircuitry and new therapeutic strategies. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 96 553–563 10.1016/j.nlm.2011.06.006
    1. Nigg J. T., Wong M. M., Martel M. M., Jester J. M., Puttler L. I., Zucker R. A. (2006). Poor response inhibition as a predictor of problem drinking and illicit drug use in adolescents at risk for alcoholism and other substance use disorders. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 45 468–475 10.1097/01.chi.0000199028.76452.a9
    1. Nolen-Hoeksema S., Watkins E. R. (2011). A heuristic for developing transdiagnostic models of psychopathology: explaining multifinality and divergent trajectories. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 6 589–609 10.1177/1745691611419672
    1. Ogilvie J. M., Stewart A. L., Chan R. C. K., Shum D. H. K. (2011). Neuropsychological measures of executive function and antisocial behavior: a meta-analysis. Criminol. 49 1063–1107 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2011.00252.x
    1. Orellana G., Slachevsky A., Peña M. (2012). Executive attention impairment in first-episode schizophrenia. BMC Psychiatry 12:154 10.1186/1471-244X-12-154
    1. Owens M., Koster E. H. W., Derakshan N. (2013). Improving attention control in dysphoria through cognitive training: transfer effects on working memory capacity and filtering efficiency. Psychophysiology 50 297–307 10.1111/psyp.12010
    1. Pacheco-Unguetti A. P., Acosta A., Callejas A., Lupiáñez J. (2010). Attention and anxiety: different attentional functioning under state and trait anxiety. Psychol. Sci. 21 298–304 10.1177/0956797609359624
    1. Parslow R., Jorm A. (2007). Pretrauma and posttrauma neurocognitive functioning and ptsd symptoms in a community sample of young adults. Am. J. Geriat. Psychiatry 164 509–515 10.1176/appi.ajp.164.3.509
    1. Pashler H., Wagenmakers E. J. (2012). Editors’ introduction to the special section on replicability in psychological science: a crisis of confidence? Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 7 528–530 10.1177/1745691612465253
    1. Peckham A. D., McHugh R. K., Otto M. W. (2010). A meta-analysis of the magnitude of biased attention in depression. Depress. Anxiety 27 1135–1142 10.1002/da.20755
    1. Peeters M., Vollebergh W. A. M., Wiers R. W., Field M. (2014). Psychological changes and cognitive impairments in adolescent heavy drinkers. Alcohol. Alcohol. 49 182–186 10.1093/alcalc/agt162
    1. Petersen S. E., Posner M. I. (2012). The attention system of the human brain: 20 years after. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 35 73–89 10.1146/annurev-neuro-062111-150525
    1. Pietrzak R. H., Mollica C. M., Maruff P., Snyder P. J. (2006). Cognitive effects of immediate-release methylphenidate in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 30 1225–1245 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.10.002
    1. Piskulic D., Olver J. S., Norman T. R., Maruff P. (2007). Behavioural studies of spatial working memory dysfunction in schizophrenia: a quantitative literature review. Psychiatry Res. 150 111–121 10.1016/j.psychres.2006.03.018
    1. Polak A. R., Witteveen A. B., Reitsma J. B., Olff M. (2012). The role of executive function in posttraumatic stress disorder: a systematic review. J. Affect. Disord. 141 11–21 10.1016/j.jad.2012.01.001
    1. Posner M. I., Petersen S. E. (1990). The attention system of the human brain. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 13 25–42 10.1146/annurev.ne.13.030190.000325
    1. Potvin S., Stavro K., Rizkallah É., Pelletier J. (2014). Cocaine and cognition: a systematic and quantitative reivew. J. Addict. Med. 8 368–376 10.1097/ADM.0000000000000066
    1. Price R. B., Mohlman J. (2007). Inhibitory control and symptom severity in late life generalized anxiety disorder. Behav. Res. Ther. 45 2628–2639 10.1016/j.brat.2007.06.007
    1. Purcell R., Maruff P., Kyrios M., Pantelis C. (1998). Neuropsychological deficits in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a comparison with unipolar depression, panic disorder, and normal controls. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 55 415–423 10.1001/archpsyc.55.5.415
    1. Rabipour S., Raz A. (2012). Training the brain: fact and fad in cognitive and behavioral remediation. Brain Cogn. 79 159–179 10.1016/j.bandc.2012.02.006
    1. Rapport M. D., Orban S. A., Kofler M. J., Friedman L. M. (2013). Do programs designed to train working memory, other executive functions, and attention benefit children with ADHD? A meta-analytic review of cognitive, academic, and behavioral outcomes. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 8 1237–1252 10.1016/j.cpr.2013.08.005
    1. Rende B., Ramsberger G., Miyake A. (2002). Commonalities and differences in the working memory components underlying letter and category fluency tasks: a dual-task investigation. Neuropsychology 16 309–321 10.1037//0894-4105.16.3.309
    1. Robbins T. W., James M., Owen A. M., Sahakian B. J., Lawrence A. D., McInnes L., et al. (1998). A study of performance on tests from the CANTAB battery sensitive to frontal lobe dysfunction in a large sample of normal volunteers: implications for theories of executive functioning and cognitive aging. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 4 474–490 10.1017/S1355617798455073
    1. Robinson L. J., Thompson J., Gallagher P., Goswami U., Young A., Ferrier I., et al. (2006). A meta-analysis of cognitive deficits in euthymic patients with bipolar disorder. J. Affect. Disord. 93 105–115 10.1016/j.jad.2006.02.016
    1. Rock P. L., Roiser J. P., Riedel W. J., Blackwell A. D. (2013). Cognitive impairment in depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychol. Med. 44 2029–2040 10.1017/S0033291713002535
    1. Rose S. A., Feldman J. F., Jankowski J. J. (2011). Modeling a cascade of effects: the role of speed and executive functioning in preterm/full-term differences in academic achievement. Dev. Sci. 14 1161–1175 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01068.x
    1. Ruscio A. M., Chiu W. T., Roy-Byrne P., Stang P. E., Stein D. J., Wïttchen H.-U., et al. (2007). Broadening the definition of generalized anxiety disorder: effects on prevalence and associations with other disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. J. Anxiety Disord. 21 662–676 10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.10.004
    1. Scott J. C., Matt G. E., Wrocklage K. M., Crnich C., Jordan J., Schweinsburg B. C. (2015). A quantitative meta-analysis of neurocognitive functioning in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychol. Bull. 141 105–140 10.1037/a0038039
    1. Shallice T. (2002). “Fractionation of the supervisory system,” in Principles of Frontal Lobe Function eds Stuss D. T., Knight R. T. (Oxford: Oxford University Press) 261–277 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195134971.003.0017
    1. Shin N. Y., Lee T. Y., Kim E., Kwon J. S. (2013). Cognitive functioning in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Med. 44 1121–1130 10.1017/S0033291713001803
    1. Smith J. L., Mattick R. P., Jamadar S. D., Iredale J. M. (2014). Deficits in behavioural inhibition in substance abuse and addiction: a meta-analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend. 145 1–33 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.08.009
    1. Snyder H. R. (2013). Major depressive disorder is associated with broad impairments on neuropsychological measures of executive function: a meta-analysis and review. Psychol. Bull. 139 81–132 10.1037/a0028727
    1. Snyder H. R., Hutchison N., Nyhus E., Curran T., Banich M. T., O’Reilly R. C., et al. (2010). Neural inhibition enables selection during language processing. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107 16483–16488 10.1073/pnas.1002291107
    1. Snyder H. R., Kaiser R. H., Warren S. L., Heller W. (2015). Obsessive-compulsive disorder is associated with broad impairments in executive function: a meta-analysis. Clin. Psychol. Sci. 3 301–330 10.1177/2167702614534210
    1. Snyder H. R., Kaiser R. H., Whisman M. A., Turner A. E. J., Guild R. M., Munakata Y. (2014). Opposite effects of anxiety and depressive symptoms on executive function: the case of selecting among competing options. Cogn. Emot. 28 893–902 10.1080/02699931.2013.859568
    1. Snyder H. R., Munakata Y. (2010). Becoming self-directed: abstract representations support endogenous flexibility in children. Cognition 116 155–167 10.1016/j.cognition.2010.04.007
    1. Snyder H. R., Munakata Y. (2013). So many options, so little control: abstract representations can reduce selection demands to increase children’s self-directed flexibility. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 116 659–673 10.1016/j.jecp.2013.07.010
    1. Sprague J., Verona E., Kalkhoff W., Kilmer A. (2011). Moderators and mediators of the stress-aggression relationship: executive function and state anger. Emotion 11 61–73 10.1037/a0021788
    1. Spronk D. B., van Wel J. H. P., Ramaekers J. G., Verkes R. J. (2013). Characterizing the cognitive effects of cocaine: a comprehensive review. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 37 1838–1859 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.07.003
    1. Stavro K., Pelletier J., Potvin S. (2012). Widespread and sustained cognitive deficits in alcoholism: a meta-analysis. Addict. Biol. 18 203–213 10.1111/j.1369-1600.2011.00418.x
    1. Stefanopoulou E., Manoharan A., Landau S., Geddes J. R., Goodwin G., Frangou S. (2009). Cognitive functioning in patients with affective disorders and schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Int. Rev. Psychiatry 21 336–356 10.1080/09540260902962149
    1. Stuss D. T. (2011). Functions of the frontal lobes: relation to executive functions. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 17 759–765 10.1017/S1355617711000695
    1. Stuss D. T., Alexander M. P. (2007). Is there a dysexecutive syndrome? Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B Biol. Sci. 362 901–915 10.1098/rstb.2007.2096
    1. Tackett J. L., Lahey B. B., van Hulle C., Waldman I., Krueger R. F., Rathouz P. J. (2013). Common genetic influences on negative emotionality and a general psychopathology factor in childhood and adolescence. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 122 1142–1153 10.1037/a0034151
    1. Teuber H.-L. (1972). Unity and diversity of frontal lobe functions. Acta Neurobiol. Exp. 32 615–656.
    1. Tokita K., Yamaji T., Hashimoto K. (2012). Roles of glutamate signaling in preclinical and/or mechanistic models of depression. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 100 688–704 10.1016/j.pbb.2011.04.016
    1. Toplak M. E., West R. F., Stanovich K. E. (2012). Practitioner review: do performance-based measures and ratings of executive function assess the same construct? J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 54 131–143 10.1111/jcpp.12001
    1. Torres I. J., Boudreau V. G., Yatham L. N. (2007). Neuropsychological functioning in euthymic bipolar disorder: a meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 116 17–26 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2007.01055.x
    1. Valiente C., Eisenberg N., Spinrad T. L., Haugen R., Thompson M. S., Kupfer A. (2013). Effortful control and impulsivity as concurrent and longitudinal predictors of academic achievement. J. Early Adolesc. 33 946–972 10.1177/0272431613477239
    1. van den Heuvel O., Veltman D., Groenewegen H., Witter M., Merkelbach J., van Dyck R. (2005). Disorder-specific neuroanatomical correlates of attentional bias in obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorder, and hypochondriasis. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 62 922–933 10.1001/archpsyc.62.8.922
    1. Van der Linden M., Ceschi G., Zermatten A., Dunker D., Perroud A. (2005). Investigation of response inhibition in obsessive-compulsive disorder using the Hayling task. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 11 776–783 10.1017/S1355617705050927
    1. van Mourik R., Oosterlaan J., Sergeant J. A. (2005). The Stroop revisited: a meta-analysis of interference control in AD/HD. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 46 150–165 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00345.x
    1. Vaughan L., Giovanello K. (2010). Executive function in daily life: age-related influences of executive processes on instrumental activities of daily living. Psychol. Aging 25 343–355 10.1037/a0017729
    1. Verbruggen F., Logan G. D., Stevens M. A. (2008). STOP-IT: windows executable software for the stop-signal paradigm. Behav. Res. Methods 40 479–483 10.3758/BRM.40.2.479
    1. Vita A., De Peri L., Deste G., Sacchetti E. (2012). Progressive loss of cortical gray matter in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis and meta-regression of longitudinal MRI studies. Transl. Psychiatry 2 e190 10.1038/tp.2012.116
    1. Walshaw P. D., Alloy L. B., Sabb F. W. (2010). Executive function in pediatric bipolar disorder and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: in search of distinct phenotypic profiles. Neuropsychol. Rev. 20 103–120 10.1007/s11065-009-9126-x
    1. Whitmer A., Banich M. T. (2007). Inhibition versus switching deficits in different forms of rumination. Psychol. Sci. 18 546–553 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01936
    1. Wiebe S. A., Espy K. A., Charak D. (2008). Using confirmatory factor analysis to understand executive control in preschool children: I. Latent structure. Dev. Psychol. 44 575–587 10.1037/0012-1649.44.2.575
    1. Wiebe S. A., Sheffield T., Nelson J. M., Clark C. A. C., Chevalier N., Espy K. A. (2011). The structure of executive function in 3-year-olds. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 108 436–452 10.1016/j.jecp.2010.08.008
    1. Willcutt E. G., Doyle A. E., Nigg J. T., Faraone S., Pennington B. F. (2005). Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Biol. Psychiatry 57 1336–1346 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006
    1. Willcutt E. G., Pennington B. F., Olson R. K., DeFries J. C. (2007). Understanding comorbidity: a twin study of reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Med. Genet. 144B 709–714 10.1002/ajmg.b.30310
    1. Williams J. M., Mathews A., MacLeod C. (1996). The emotional Stroop task and psychopathology. Psychol. Bull. 120 3–24 10.1037/0033-2909.120.1.3
    1. Young S. E., Friedman N. P., Miyake A., Willcutt E. G., Corley R. P., Haberstick B. C., et al. (2009). Behavioral disinhibition: liability for externalizing spectrum disorders and its genetic and environmental relation to response inhibition across adolescence. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 118 117–130 10.1037/a0014657
    1. Zakzanis K. K., Campbell Z., Jovanovski D. (2007). The neuropsychology of ecstasy (MDMA) use: a quantitative review. Hum. Psychopharmacol. Clin. Exp. 22 427–435 10.1002/hup.873
    1. Zetsche U., D’Avanzato C., Joormann J. (2012). Depression and rumination: relation to components of inhibition. Cogn. Emot. 26 758–767 10.1080/02699931.2011.613919

Source: PubMed

Sponsors and Collaborators

Medical Conditions

Drug Interventions

3
Subscribe