Nitrosative Stress and Its Association with Cardiometabolic Disorders

Israel Pérez-Torres, Linaloe Manzano-Pech, María Esther Rubio-Ruíz, María Elena Soto, Verónica Guarner-Lans, Israel Pérez-Torres, Linaloe Manzano-Pech, María Esther Rubio-Ruíz, María Elena Soto, Verónica Guarner-Lans

Abstract

: Reactive nitrogen species (RNS) are formed when there is an abnormal increase in the level of nitric oxide (NO) produced by the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and/or by the uncoupled endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS). The presence of high concentrations of superoxide anions (O2-) is also necessary for their formation. RNS react three times faster than O2- with other molecules and have a longer mean half life. They cause irreversible damage to cell membranes, proteins, mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum, nucleic acids and enzymes, altering their activity and leading to necrosis and to cell death. Although nitrogen species are important in the redox imbalance, this review focuses on the alterations caused by the RNS in the cellular redox system that are associated with cardiometabolic diseases. Currently, nitrosative stress (NSS) is implied in the pathogenesis of many diseases. The mechanisms that produce damage remain poorly understood. In this paper, we summarize the current knowledge on the participation of NSS in the pathology of cardiometabolic diseases and their possible mechanisms of action. This information might be useful for the future proposal of anti-NSS therapies for cardiometabolic diseases.

Keywords: nitric oxide; nitrosative stress; peroxynitrite; uncoupled NOS isoforms.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Interrelationship between the synthesis of nitric oxide and the generation of RNS. The RNS are formed in the presence of high O2 concentrations—and when there is an abnormal increase in the level of NO produced by the iNOS and/or by the uncoupled eNOS and nNOS. Abbreviations: FAD = flavin adenine dinucleotide, FMN = flavin mononucleotide, NAD(P)H = nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, O2 = molecular oxygen, RNS = reactive nitrogen species, NO = nitric oxide, ONOO− = peroxynitrate, •NO2 = nitrogen dioxide, HNO3 = peroxynitrous acid, N2O3 = dinitrogen trioxide, HNO = nitroxyl, ONOOH = peroxynitrous acid, O2NOO− = peroxynitrate, O2NOOH = peroxynitric acid, NO+ = nitrosonium cation, NO3− = nitrate, NO2− = nitrite, NO− = nitroxyl anion, RNS = reactive nitrogen species, ETC = electron transport chain, BH4 = tetrahydrobiopterin, BH2 = dihydrobiopterin and L-arg = l-arginine. nNOS, eNOS and iNOS = neuronal, endothelial and inducible nitric oxide synthase.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Interaction between nitrosative stress (NSS) and the mitochondrial proteins. The nitration of Tyr residues in the catalytic β subunit of the complex V decrease adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels. The ONOO− impairs complex I by S-nitrosylation affecting the iron-sulphur centers.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Nitrosative stress and the antioxidant system. A deficient of the antioxidant defense mechanisms favor the processes of nitration and nitrosylation of different enzymes. Reaction (A): Nitration and S-nitrosylation influence the activity of the CAT that affects its binding to H2O2. Reaction (B): The S-nitrosylation of the catalytic site in the SOD may lead to the loss of its activity, and, also, a high NO concentration enhances O2− production by inhibition of the cytochrome oxidase. Reaction (C): The lack of GPX 1 enhances ONOO− survival. (D): There is an inhibition of GR activity and a reduced concentration of GSH after the S-nitrosylation; the reaction with GSH generates S-GSNO. Abbreviations: SOD = superoxide dismutase, CAT = catalase, GPx = glutathione peroxidase, PRDX = peroxiredoxin, GR = glutathione reductase, GSH = glutathione, GSSG = oxidized glutathione, S-GSNO = S-nitroso glutathione, Fe-NO = ferric-nitrosyl, NO = nitric oxide, ONOO− = peroxynitrite, OH− = hydroxyl radical, LH = polyunsaturated fatty acid, L = carbon-center lipid radical and [] = concentration.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Relation of NSS with some metabolic disorders. Abbreviations: NSS = nitrosative stress.

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