Racism as a Determinant of Health: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Yin Paradies, Jehonathan Ben, Nida Denson, Amanuel Elias, Naomi Priest, Alex Pieterse, Arpana Gupta, Margaret Kelaher, Gilbert Gee, Yin Paradies, Jehonathan Ben, Nida Denson, Amanuel Elias, Naomi Priest, Alex Pieterse, Arpana Gupta, Margaret Kelaher, Gilbert Gee

Abstract

Despite a growing body of epidemiological evidence in recent years documenting the health impacts of racism, the cumulative evidence base has yet to be synthesized in a comprehensive meta-analysis focused specifically on racism as a determinant of health. This meta-analysis reviewed the literature focusing on the relationship between reported racism and mental and physical health outcomes. Data from 293 studies reported in 333 articles published between 1983 and 2013, and conducted predominately in the U.S., were analysed using random effects models and mean weighted effect sizes. Racism was associated with poorer mental health (negative mental health: r = -.23, 95% CI [-.24,-.21], k = 227; positive mental health: r = -.13, 95% CI [-.16,-.10], k = 113), including depression, anxiety, psychological stress and various other outcomes. Racism was also associated with poorer general health (r = -.13 (95% CI [-.18,-.09], k = 30), and poorer physical health (r = -.09, 95% CI [-.12,-.06], k = 50). Moderation effects were found for some outcomes with regard to study and exposure characteristics. Effect sizes of racism on mental health were stronger in cross-sectional compared with longitudinal data and in non-representative samples compared with representative samples. Age, sex, birthplace and education level did not moderate the effects of racism on health. Ethnicity significantly moderated the effect of racism on negative mental health and physical health: the association between racism and negative mental health was significantly stronger for Asian American and Latino(a) American participants compared with African American participants, and the association between racism and physical health was significantly stronger for Latino(a) American participants compared with African American participants. Protocol PROSPERO registration number: CRD42013005464.

Conflict of interest statement

Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Figures

Fig 1. PRISMA screening process flowchart.
Fig 1. PRISMA screening process flowchart.
Fig 2. Forest plot of the effect…
Fig 2. Forest plot of the effect sizes for individual studies included in the meta-analysis: Negative Mental Health (k = 227).
Fig 3. Forest plot of the effect…
Fig 3. Forest plot of the effect sizes for individual studies included in the meta-analysis: Positive Mental Health (k = 113).
Fig 4. Forest plot of the effect…
Fig 4. Forest plot of the effect sizes for individual studies included in the meta-analysis: Physical Health (k = 50).
Fig 5. Forest plot of the effect…
Fig 5. Forest plot of the effect sizes for individual studies included in the meta-analysis: General Health (k = 30).

References

    1. Berman G, Paradies Y. Racism, disadvantage and multiculturalism: towards effective anti-racist praxis. Ethnic & Racial Studies. 2010;33(2):214–32.
    1. Paradies Y. Defining, Conceptualizing and Characterizing Racism in Health Research. Critical Public Health. 2006;16(2):143–57.
    1. Hamilton C, Carmichael S. Black Power. New York: Random House; 1967.
    1. United Nations. World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance: Declaration and Programme of Action. 2009.
    1. Brika J, Lemaine G, Jackson J. Racism and xenophobia in Europe, Eurobarometer opinion poll no 47.1. Employment, Industrial Relations and Social Affairs Directorate (DGV), the European Commission., 1997.
    1. Semyonov M, Raijman R, Gorodzeisky A. The rise of anti-foreigner sentiment in European societies, 1988–2000. American Sociological Review. 2006;71(3):426–49.
    1. Gallup Poll. Race relations. , 2014.
    1. The Guardian. Racism on the rise in Britain. 2014.
    1. Markus A. Mapping Social Cohesion: The Scanlon Foundation surveys 2014 Caulfield East: Australian Centre for Jewish Civilization, 2014.
    1. Paradies Y. A systematic review of empirical research on self-reported racism and health. Int J Epidemiol. 2006;35(4):888–901.
    1. Brondolo E, Brady N, Libby D, Pencille M. Racism as a Psychosocial Stressor In: Baum A, Contrada R, editors. Handbook of Stress Science. New York: Springer; 2011. p. 167–84.
    1. Harrell CP, Burford TI, Cage BN, McNair Nelson T, Shearon S, Thompson A, et al. Multiple Pathways Linking Racism to Health Outcomes. Du Bois Review. 2011;8(1):143–57.
    1. Pascoe EA, Richman LS. Perceived Discrimination and Health: A Meta-Analytic Review. Psychological Bulletin. 2009;135(4):531–54. 10.1037/a0016059
    1. Priest N, Paradies Y, Trenerry B, Truong M, Karlsen S, Kelly Y. A systematic review of studies examining the relationship between reported racism and health and wellbeing for children and young people. Social Science and Medicine. 2013;95:115–27. 10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.11.031
    1. Gee GC, Ro A, Shriff-Marco S, Chae D. Racial Discrimination and Health Among Asian Americans: Evidence, Assessment, and Directions for Future Research. Epidemiologic Reviews. 2009;(ePub ahead of print):1–22.
    1. Krieger N, Rowley D, Hermann AA, Avery B, Phillips MT. Racism, sexism and social class: implications for studies of health, disease, and well-being. Am J Prev Med. 1993;9(6):82–122.
    1. Williams DR, Lavizzo-Mourey R, Warren RC. The concept of race and health status in America. Public Health Rep. 1994;109(1):26–41.
    1. Williams DR, Williams-Morris R. Racism and mental health: the African American experience. EthnHealth. 2000;5(3–4):243–68.
    1. Brondolo E, Rieppi R, Kelly KP, Gerin W. Perceived racism and blood pressure: a review of the literature and conceptual and methodological critique. AnnBehavMed. 2003;25(1):55–65.
    1. Williams DR, Neighbors HW, Jackson JS. Racial/Ethnic discrimination and health: findings from community studies. Am J Public Health. 2003;93(2):200–8.
    1. Wyatt SB, William DR, Calvin R, Henderson FC, Walker ER, Winters K. Racism and Cardiovascular Disease in African Americans. Am J Med Sci. 2003;325(6):315–31.
    1. Williams DR, Mohammed SA. Discrimination and racial disparities in health: evidence and needed research. J Behav Med. 2009;32(1):20–47. 10.1007/s10865-008-9185-0
    1. Schmitt MT, Branscombe NR, Postmes T, Garcia A. The Consequences of Perceived Discrimination for Psychological Well-Being: A Meta-Analytic Review. Psychological Bulletin. 2014;140(4):921–48. 10.1037/a0035754
    1. Goto JB, Couto PFM, Bastos JL. Systematic review of epidemiological studies on interpersonal discrimination and mental health. Cadernos De Saude Publica. 2013;29(3):445–59.
    1. Conklin HD. Perceived Racism and Mental Health: A Meta-Analytic Review: Brigham Young University; 2011.
    1. Sanders-Phillips K. Racial Discrimination: A Continuum of Violence Exposure for Children of Color. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2009;12(2):174–95. 10.1007/s10567-009-0053-4
    1. Pachter LM, Garcia Coll C. Racism and Child Health: A Review of the Literature and Future Directions. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2009;30(3):255–63. 10.1097/DBP.0b013e3181a7ed5a
    1. Lee DL, Ahn S. Racial Discrimination and Asian Mental Health: A Meta-Analysis. The Counseling Psychologist. 2011;39(3):463–89.
    1. Lee DL, Ahn S. Discrimination Against Latina/os: A Meta-Analysis of Individual-Level Resources and Outcomes. The Counseling Psychologist. 2012;40(1):28–65.
    1. Lee DL, Ahn S. The relation of racial identity, ethnic identity, and racial socialization to discrimination–distress: A meta-analysis of Black Americans. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2013;60(1):1–14. 10.1037/a0031275
    1. Pieterse AL, Todd NR, Neville HA, Carter RT. Perceived Racism and Mental Health Among Black American Adults: A Meta-Analytic Review. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2012;59(1):1–9. 10.1037/a0026208
    1. Lewis TT, Williams DR, Clark CR. Self-Reported Experiences of Discrimination and Cardiovascular Disease. Current Cardiovascular Risk Reports. 2014;8:365
    1. Cuffee YL, Hargraves JL, Allison J. Exploring the association between reported discrimination and hypertension among African Americans: a systematic review. Ethnicity & Disease. 2012;22(4):422–31.
    1. Dolezsar CM, McGrath JJ, Herzig AJM, Miller SB. Perceived Racial Discrimination and Hypertension: A Comprehensive Systematic Review. Health Psychology. 2014;33(1):20–34. 10.1037/a0033718
    1. Brondolo E., Love E. E., Pencille M., Schoenthaler A., & Ogedegbe G. (2011). Racism and hypertension: a review of the empirical evidence and implications for clinical practice. American journal of hypertension, 24(5), 518–529. 10.1038/ajh.2011.9
    1. Pavalko EK, Mossakowski KN, Hamilton VJ. Does perceived discrimination affect health? Longitudinal relationships between work discrimination and women's physical and emotional health. J Health Soc Behav. 2003;44(1):18–33.
    1. Gee G, Walsemann K. Does health predict the reporting of racial discrimination or do reports of discrimination predict health? Findings from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth. Soc Sci Med. 2009;69(9):1676–84.
    1. Lewis TT, Everson-Rose SA, Powell LH, Matthews KA, Brown C, Karzvolos K, et al. Chronic exposure to everyday discrimination and coronary artery calcification in African-American women: the SWAN Heart Study. PsychosomMed. 2006;68(3):362–8.
    1. Baron RM, Kenny DA. The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. J PersSoc Psychol. 1986;51(6):1173–82.
    1. Clark R, Anderson NB, Clark VR, Williams DR. Racism as a stressor for African Americans. A biopsychosocial model. Am Psychol. 1999;54(10):805–16.
    1. Williams DR, Mohammed SA. Racism and Health I: Pathways and Scientific Evidence American Behavioral Scientist. 2013;57(8):1152–73.
    1. English D, Lambert SF, Ialongo NS. Longitudinal associations between experienced racial discrimination and depressive symptoms in African American adolescents. Developmental Psychology. 2014;50(4):1190–6. 10.1037/a0034703
    1. Gee GC, Ryan A, Laflamme DJ, Holt J. Self-Reported Discrimination and Mental Health Status Among African Descendants, Mexican Americans, and Other Latinos in the New Hampshire REACH 2010 Initiative: The Added Dimension of Immigration. Am J Public Health. 2006;96(10):1821–8.
    1. Mulia N, Zemore SE. Social Adversity, Stress, and Alcohol Problems: Are Racial/Ethnic Minorities and the Poor More Vulnerable? Journal of Studies on Alcohol & Drugs. 2012;73(4):570–80.
    1. Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. Annals of internal medicine. 2009;151(4):264–9.
    1. Paradies Y, Priest N, Ben J, Truong M, Gupta A, Pieterse A, et al. Racism as a determinant of health: A protocol for conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis. Systematic Reviews. 2013;2(85).
    1. Utsey SO. Development and validation of a short form of the Index of Race-Related Stress (IRRS)-brief version. Measurement & Evaluation in Counseling & Development. 1999;32(3):149–67.
    1. Harrell SP. The Racism and Life Experience Scales (RaLES): Self-administration version. Unpublished Manuscript1997.
    1. McNeilly MD, Anderson NB, Armstead CA, Clark R, Corbett M, Robinson EL, et al. The perceived racism scale: a multidimensional assessment of the experience of white racism among African Americans. Ethn Dis. 1996;6(1–2):154–66.
    1. Chakraborty A, King M, Leavey G, McKenzie K. Perceived racism, medication adherence, and hospital admission in African-Caribbean patients with psychosis in the United Kingdom. Social Psychiatry And Psychiatric Epidemiology. 2011;46(9):915–23. 10.1007/s00127-010-0261-8
    1. Clark R, Anderson NB. Efficacy of racism-specific coping styles as predictors of cardiovascular functioning. Ethn Dis. 2001;11(2):286–95.
    1. Clark VR, Hill OW Jr. Body mass and cardiovascular reactivity to racism in African American college students. Ethn Dis. 2009;19(1):2–6.
    1. McCracken MO. Endnote X7.1. 2013.
    1. Borenstein M, Hedges LV, Higgins JP, Rothstein HR: Comprehensive Meta-analysisVersion 2.2.057. Biostat: Englewood, NJ; 2010.
    1. Bowman NA. Effect sizes and statistical methods for meta-analysis in higher education. Research in Higher Education. 2012;53:475–382.
    1. Practical meta-analysis effect size calculator [Internet]. 2015.
    1. Cohen J, Cohen P, West SG, Aiken LS. Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences 3rd ed. Mahwah, MJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates; 2003.
    1. Cooper HM. Synthesizing research: A guide for literature reviews 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 1998.
    1. Hedges L, Vevea J. Fixed- and random-effects models in meta-analysis. Psychological Methods. 1998;3:486–504.
    1. Fu R, Gartlehner G, Grant M, Shamliyan T, Sedrakyan A, Wilt T, et al. Conducting quantitative synthesis when comparing medical interventions: AHRQ and the effective health care program. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology. 2011;64:1187–97. 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2010.08.010
    1. Higgins J, Green S, editors. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions 5.1.0 [updated March 2011)2011.
    1. Helms JE, Henze KT, Sass TL, Mifsud VA. Treating Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficients as data in counseling research. The Counseling Psychologist. 2006;34(5):630–60.
    1. Schnittker J, McLeod JD. The Social Psychology of Health Disparities. Annual Review of Sociology. 2005;31:75–103.
    1. Egger M, Smith GD, Schneider M, Minder C. Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. British Medical Journal. 1997;315 (629–634).
    1. Quintana SM, Minami T. Guidelines for meta-analysis of counseling psychology research. Counseling Psychologist. 2006;34:839–77.
    1. Duval S, Tweedie R. Trim and fill: a simple funnel plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics. 2000;56:455–63.
    1. Duval S, Tweedie R. A nonparametric “trim and fill” method of accounting for publication bias in meta-analysis. J AmStat Assoc. 2000;96:89–98.
    1. Abbassi-Zoabi MJ. Discrimination, ethnic identity, and social support as predictors of self-efficacy in Arab American adolescents [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: Fordham University; 2012.
    1. Abdulrahim S, James SA, Yamout R, Baker W. Discrimination and psychological distress: does Whiteness matter for Arab Americans? Social science & medicine 2012;75(12):2116–23. 10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.07.030
    1. Agaskar VR. Mediating and moderating factors in the Asian American's psychological distress: An analysis of National Latino and Asian American study (NLAAS) data [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: Oakland University; 2011.
    1. Agudelo-Suarez AA, Ronda-Perez E, Gil-Gonzalez D, Vives-Cases C, Garcia AM, Ruiz-Frutos C, et al. The effect of perceived discrimination on the health of immigrant workers in Spain. BMC public health. 2011;11:652 10.1186/1471-2458-11-652
    1. Ahmed SR, Kia-Keating M, Tsai KH. A structural model of racial discrimination, acculturative stress, and cultural resources among Arab American adolescents. Am J Community Psychol. 2011;48(3–4):181–92. 10.1007/s10464-011-9424-3
    1. Alamilla SG, Kim BSK, Lam NA. Acculturation, enculturation, perceived racism, minority status stressors, and psychological symptomatology among Latino/as. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences. 2010;32(1):55–76.
    1. Albert MA, Cozier Y, Ridker PM, Palmer JR, Glynn RJ, Rose L, et al. Perceptions of race/ethnic discrimination in relation to mortality among Black women: results from the Black Women's Health Study. Archives of internal medicine. 2010;170(10):896–904. 10.1001/archinternmed.2010.116
    1. Anderson ME. Perceived discrimination and worldview: The relationship to health status among patients with diabetes [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: The Ohio State University; 2007.
    1. Appel RE. Perceived ethnic discrimination and its association to ecological momentary assessment of daily interactions [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: St. John's University (New York); 2003.
    1. Armenta BE, Hunt JS. Responding to Societal Devaluation: Effects of Perceived Personal and Group Discrimination on the Ethnic Group Identification and Personal Self-Esteem of Latino/Latina Adolescents. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. 2009;12(1):23–39.
    1. Asamen JK. The effects of perceived prejudice, alientation, and acculturation on the self concept of Japanese and Chinese Americanns Ann Arbor: University of California, Los Angeles; 1983.
    1. Ashburn-Nardo L, Monteith MJ, Arthur SA, Bain A. Race and the Psychological Health of African Americans. Group Processes Intergroup Relations. 2007;10(4):471–91.
    1. Ayalon L, Gum AM. The relationships between major lifetime discrimination, everyday discrimination, and mental health in three racial and ethnic groups of older adults. Aging & Mental Health. 2011;15(5):587–94. 10.1080/13607863.2010.543664
    1. Bailey T-KM. Construct validation of the Internalized Racial Oppression Scale [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: Georgia State University; 2008.
    1. Banks KH, Kohn-Wood L. The influence of racial identity profiles on the relationship between racial discrimination and depressive symptoms. Journal of Black Psychology. 2007;33(3):331–54.
    1. Barksdale DJ, Farrug ER, Harkness K. Racial discrimination and blood pressure: perceptions, emotions, and behaviors of black American adults. Issues MentHealth Nurs. 2009;30(2):104–11.
    1. Barnes PW, Lightsey OR. Perceived Racist Discrimination, Coping, Stress, and Life Satisfaction. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development. 2005;33(1):48–61.
    1. Barrett ME, Joe GW, Simpson DD. Acculturation Influences on Inhalant Use. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences. 1991;13(3):296.
    1. Barry DT, Grilo CM. Cultural, Self-Esteem, and Demographic Correlates of Perception of Personal and Group Discrimination Among East Asian Immigrants. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2003;73(2):223–9.
    1. Basurto Jr R. The relationship of ethnic identity to self-esteem and stress as a function of perceived discrimination among Mexican-Americans [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: California School of Professional Psychology—Los Angeles; 1996.
    1. Becares L, Nazroo J, Stafford M. The buffering effects of ethnic density on experienced racism and health. Health Place. 2009;5(3):670–8.
    1. Behnke AO, Plunkett SW, Sands T, Bamaca-Colbert MY. The Relationship Between Latino Adolescents' Perceptions of Discrimination, Neighborhood Risk, and Parenting on Self-Esteem and Depressive Symptoms. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology. 2011;42(7):1179–97.
    1. Benjamins MR. Race/Ethnic discrimination and preventive service utilization in a sample of whites, blacks, mexicans, and puerto ricans. Medical Care. 2012;50(10):870–6. 10.1097/MLR.0b013e31825a8c63
    1. Benjamins MR, Whitman S. Relationships between discrimination in health care and health care outcomes among four race/ethnic groups. Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 2014;37(3):402–13. 10.1007/s10865-013-9496-7
    1. Berg AO, Melle I, Rossberg JI, Romm KL, Larsson S, Lagerberg TV, et al. Perceived discrimination is associated with severity of positive and depression/anxiety symptoms in immigrants with psychosis: a cross-sectional study. BMC Psychiatry. 2011;11(1):77–85.
    1. Berkel C, Knight GP, Zeiders KH, Tein JY, Roosa MW, Gonzales NA, et al. Discrimination and Adjustment for Mexican American Adolescents: A Prospective Examination of the Benefits of Culturally Related Values. Journal of Research on Adolescence. 2010;20(4):893–915.
    1. Best JL. An integrative analysis of racism and quality of life: A comparison of multidimensional moderators in an ethnically diverse sample [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: University of Southern California; 2005.
    1. Bird ST, Bogart LM, Delhanty DL. Health-related correlates of perceived discrimination in HIV care. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2004;18:19–26.
    1. Blankenau J, Boye-Beaman J, Mueller K. Health-care utilization and the status of Latinos in rural meat-processing communities. Great Plains Research. 2000;10(2):275–94.
    1. Bodkin-Andrews GH, Seaton M, Nelson GF, Craven RG, Yeung AS. Questioning the general self-esteem vaccine: General self-esteem, racial discrimination, and standardised achieve- ment across Indigenous and non-Indigenous students. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling. 2010;20(1):1–21.
    1. Bogart LM, Wagner GJ, Galvan FH, Landrine H, Klein DJ, Sticklor LA. Perceived discrimination and mental health symptoms among Black men with HIV. Cultural diversity & ethnic minority psychology. 2011;17(3):295–302. 10.1037/a0024056
    1. Borges G, Azrael D, Almeida J, Johnson RM, Molnar BE, Hemenway D, et al. Immigration, suicidal ideation and deliberate self-injury in the Boston youth survey 2006. Suicide & life-threatening behavior. 2011;41(2):193–202. 10.1111/j.1943-278X.2010.00016.x
    1. Borrell LN, Jacobs DR, Williams DR, Pletcher MJ, Houston TK, Kiefe CI. Self-reported Racial Discrimination and Substance Use in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Adults Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2007;166(9):1068–79.
    1. Borrell LN, Kiefe CI, Williams DR, Diez-Roux AV, Gordon-Larsen P. Self-reported health, perceived racial discrimination, and skin color in African Americans in the CARDIA study. SocSciMed. 2006;63(6):1415–27.
    1. Bowen-Reid TL, Harrell JP. Racist Experiences and Health Outcomes: An Examination of Spirituality as a Buffer. Journal of Black Psychology. 2002;28 (1):18–36
    1. Bowman T. An exploration of the relationship between racism-related stress and emotional well-being for African American college students [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: Oklahoma State University; 2008.
    1. Branscombe NR, Schmitt MT, Harvey RD. Perceiving Pervasive Discrimination Among African Americans: Implications for Group Identification and Well-Being. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology. 1999;77(1):135–49.
    1. Brody GH, Chen Y-F, Murry VM, Ge X, Simons RL, Gibbons FX, et al. Perceived Discrimination and the Adjustment of African American Youths: A Five-Year Longitudinal Analysis with Contextual Moderation Effects. Child Development. 2006;77(5):1170–89.
    1. Broman CL. Race-related factors and life satisfaction among African Americans. Journal of Black Psychology. 1997;23(1):36–49.
    1. Brondolo E, Hausmann LR, Jhalani J, Pencille M, Atencio-Bacayon J, Kumar A, et al. Dimensions of Perceived Racism and Self-Reported Health: Examination of Racial/Ethnic Differences and Potential Mediators. Annals of Behavioural medicine. 2011. 42(1):14–28.
    1. Broudy R, Brondolo E, Coakley V, Brady N, Cassells A, Tobin JN, et al. Perceived Ethnic Discrimination in Relation to Daily Moods and Negative Social Interactions. J BehavMed. 2007;30(1):31–43.
    1. Brown JF. The relationships between racial and gender discrimination, childhood socialization messages, and the self-esteems of professional Black women Ann Arbor: University of Maryland College Park; 1991.
    1. Brown TN, Sellers SL, Gomez JP. The relationship between internalization and self-esteem among black adults. Sociological Focus. 2002;35(1):55–71.
    1. Buchanan NT. Examining the impact of racial harassment on sexually harassed African American women [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; 2002.
    1. Buchanan NT, Fitzgerald LF. Effects of racial and sexual harassment on work and the psychological well-being of African American women. J Occup Health Psychol. 2008;13(2):137–51. 10.1037/1076-8998.13.2.137
    1. Burgess DJ, Grill J, Noorbaloochi S, Griffin JM, Ricards J, van Ryn M, et al. The Effect of Perceived Racial Discrimination on Bodily Pain among Older African American Men. Pain Medicine. 2009;10(8):1341–52. 10.1111/j.1526-4637.2009.00742.x
    1. Burrow AL, Ong AD. Racial Identity as a Moderator of Daily Exposure and Reactivity to Racial Discrimination. Self and Identity. 2010;9(4):383–402.
    1. Byrd DR. Race/Ethnicity and self-reported levels of discrimination and psychological distress, California, 2005. Preventing chronic disease. 2012;9:E156 10.5888/pcd9.120042
    1. Cakir SG, Yerin Guneri O. Exploring the factors contributing to empowerment of Turkish migrant women in the UK. International journal of psychology: Journal international de psychologie. 2011;46(3):223–33. 10.1080/00207594.2010.532800
    1. Camacho-Gonsalves T. Depressive symptomatology among Dominicans: Links to acculturative and economic stressors, skin tone, and perceived discrimination [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: University of New Hampshire; 2002.
    1. Cardarelli R, Cardarelli KM, Fulda KG, Espinoza A, Cage C, Vishwanatha J, et al. Self-reported racial discrimination, response to unfair treatment, and coronary calcification in asymptomatic adults—the North Texas Healthy Heart study. BMC public health. 2010;10:285 10.1186/1471-2458-10-285
    1. Cassidy C, O'Conner RC, Howe C, Warden D. Perceived Discrimination and Psychological Distress: The Role of Personal and Ethnic Self-Esteem. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2004;51(3):329–39.
    1. Cassidy C, O'Connor RC, Howe C, Warden D. Perceived discrimination among ethnic minority young people: The role of psychological variables. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 2005;35(6):1246–65.
    1. Chae D, Lincoln K, Adler N, Syme S. Do experiences of racial discrimination predict cardiovascular disease among African American men? The moderating role of internalized negative racial group attitudes. Soc Sci Med. 2010;71(6):1182–8. 10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.05.045
    1. Chae DH, Lincoln KD, Jackson JS. Discrimination, attribution, and racial group identification: Implications for psychological distress among Black Americans in the National Survey of American Life (2001–2003). American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 2011;81(4):498–506. 10.1111/j.1939-0025.2011.01122.x
    1. Chakraborty AT, McKenzie KJ, Hajat S, Stansfeld SA. Racism, mental illness and social support in the UK. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology. 2010;45(12):1115–24. 10.1007/s00127-009-0156-8
    1. Chambers EC, Tull ES, Fraser HS, Mutunhu NR, Sobers N, Niles E. The relationship of internalized racism to body fat distribution and insulin resistance among African adolescent youth. J NatlMed Assoc. 2004;96(12):1594–8.
    1. Chen H-J, Mallinckrodt B, Mobley M. Attachment Patters of East Asian International Students and Sources of Perceived Social Supoort as Moderators of the Impact of US Racism and Cultural Distress. Asian Journal of Counseling. 2002;9(1 & 2):27–48.
    1. Cho-Chang Y-Y. The moderating role of religious coping in the relationship between perceived racial discrimination and depression in Korean American Christians [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: Boston University; 2013.
    1. Choi K-H, Paul J, Ayala G, Boylan R, Gregorich SE. Experiences of Discrimination and Their Impact on the Mental Health Among African American, Asian and Pacific Islander, and Latino Men Who Have Sex With Men. American Journal of Public Health. 2013;103(5):868–74. 10.2105/AJPH.2012.301052
    1. Chrobot-Mason D, Ragins BR, Linnehan F. Second hand smoke: ambient racial harassment at work. Journal of Managerial Psychology. 2013;28(5):470–91.
    1. Cislo AM. Psychological distress among Cuban and Colombian immigrants in Miami: Considering the roles of acculturation and ethnic discrimination Tallahassee: Florida State University; 2008.
    1. Clark R. Perceptions of interethnic group racism predict increased vascular reactivity to a laboratory challenge in college women. Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 2000;22(3):214–22.
    1. Clark R. Self-reported racism and social support predict blood pressure reactivity in blacks. Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 2003;25(2):127–36.
    1. Clark R, Coleman AP, Novak JD. Brief report: Initial psychometric properties of the everyday discrimination scale in black adolescents. Journal of Adolescence. 2004;27(3):363–8.
    1. Clark R, Gochett P. Interactive effects of perceived racism and coping responses predict a school-based assessment of blood pressure in black youth. Annals of behavioral medicine: a publication of the Society of Behavioral Medicine. 2006;32(1):1–9.
    1. Clement R, Noels KA, Deneault B. Interethnic contact, identity and psychological adjustment: The mediating and moderating roles of communication. Journal of Social Issues. 2001;57(3):559–77.
    1. Cogburn CD. Racial Cognition and School-Based Racial Discrimination: The Role of Racial Identity, Racial Identity Exploration and Critical Race Consciousness in Adaptive Academic and Psychological Functioning among African American Adolescents [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan; 2010.
    1. Cogburn CD, Chavous TM, Griffin TM. School-based racial and gender discrimination among African American adolescents: Exploring gender variation in frequency and implications for adjustment. Race and Social Problems. 2011;3(1): 25–37.
    1. Coker TR, Elliott MN, Kanouse DE, Grunbaum JA, Schwebel DC, Gilliland MJ, et al. Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination among fifth-grade students and its association with mental health. American Journal of Public Health. 2009;99(5):878–84. 10.2105/AJPH.2008.144329
    1. Combs DR, Penn DL, Cassisi J, Michael C, Wood T, Wanner J, et al. Perceived racism as a predictor of paranoia among African Americans. Journal of Black Psychology. 2006;32(1):87–104.
    1. Contrada RJ, Ashmore RD, Gary ML, Coups E, Egeth JD, Sewell A, et al. Measures of ethnicity-related stress: Psychometric properties, ethnic group differences, and associations with well-being. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 2001;31(9):1775–820.
    1. Cooke DY. Racial discrimination and well-being among African American university students [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan; 2002.
    1. Cooper DC, Mills PJ, Bardwell WA, Ziegler MG, Dimsdale JE. The Effects of Ethnic Discrimination and Socioeconomic Status on Endothelin-1 Among Blacks and Whites. Am J Hypertens. 2009;22(7):698–704. 10.1038/ajh.2009.72
    1. Copeland-Linder N, Lambert SF, Chen YF, Ialongo NS. Contextual Stress and Health Risk Behaviors Among African American Adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 2011;40(2):158–73. 10.1007/s10964-010-9520-y
    1. Crengle S, Robinson E, Ameratunga S, Clark T, Raphael D. Ethnic discrimination prevalence and associations with health outcomes: data from a nationally representative cross-sectional survey of secondary school students in New Zealand. BMC public health. 2012;12:45 10.1186/1471-2458-12-45
    1. Cronin TJ, Levin S, Branscombe NR, van Laar C, Tropp LR. Ethnic identification in response to perceived discrimination protects well-being and promotes activism: A longitudinal study of Latino college students. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. 2012;15(3):393–407.
    1. Crouter AC, Davis KD, Updegraff KA, Delgado M, Fortner M. Mexican American Fathers' occupational conditions: Links to family members' psychological adjustment. Journal of Marriage and the Family. 2006;68(4):843–58.
    1. Currie CL, Wild TC, Schopflocher DP, Laing L, Veugelers P, Parlee B. Racial Discrimination, Post Traumatic Stress, and Gambling Problems among Urban Aboriginal Adults in Canada. Journal of gambling studies / co-sponsored by the National Council on Problem Gambling and Institute for the Study of Gambling and Commercial Gaming. 2013;29(3):393–415.
    1. Dailey AB. The influence of neighborhood-level socioeconomic status and perceived racial discrimination on non-adherence to mammography screening guidelines [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: Yale University; 2006.
    1. Dang TA. Effects of perceived discrimination on Asian Americans: A daily process study [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: Washington State University; 2012.
    1. Dawson BA, Panchanadeswaran S. Discrimination and Acculturative Stress among First-Generation Dominicans. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences. 2010;32(2):216–31.
    1. de Castro AB, Gee GC, Takeuchi DT. Workplace Discrimination and Health Among Filipinos in the United States. Am J Public Health. 2008;98(3):520–6. 10.2105/AJPH.2007.110163
    1. De Maio FG, Kemp E. The deterioration of health status among immigrants to Canada. Global Public Health. 2010;5(5):462–78. 10.1080/17441690902942480
    1. Deblaere C. Perceived discrimination experiences and mental health of Asian American women. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B Sciences and Engineering 2009;73(1):612.
    1. Delgado MY, Updegraff KA, Roosa MW, Umaña-Taylor AJ. Discrimination and Mexican-Origin Adolescents' Adjustment: The Moderating Roles of Adolescents', Mothers', and Fathers' Cultural Orientations and Values. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 2011;40(2):125–39. 10.1007/s10964-009-9467-z
    1. Diaz RM, Ayala G, Bein E, Henne J, Marin BV. The impact of Homophobia, Poverty, and Racism on the Mental Health of Gay and Bisexual Latino Men; Findings from 3 US Cities. Am J Public Health. 2001;91(6):927–32.
    1. Dixon B, Rifas-Shiman SL, James-Todd T, Ertel K, Krieger N, Kleinman KP, et al. Maternal experiences of racial discrimination and child weight status in the first 3 years of life. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease. 2012;3(6):433–41. 10.1017/S2040174412000384
    1. Dominguez TP, Dunkel-Schetter C, Glynn LM, Hobel C, Sandman CA. Racial differences in birth outcomes: The role of general, pregnancy, and racism stress. Health Psychology. 2008;27(2):194–203. 10.1037/0278-6133.27.2.194
    1. Donovan RA, Huynh Q-L, Park IJK, Kim SY, Lee RM, Robertson E. Relationships Among Identity, Perceived Discrimination, and Depressive Symptoms in Eight Ethnic-Generational Groups. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2013;69(4):397–414. 10.1002/jclp.21936
    1. Downie MS. The impact of racism and sexism on the well-being of African-American female college students. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B Sciences and Engineering. 1998;59(5-B):2483.
    1. DuBois DL, Burk-Braxton C, Swenson LP, Tevendale HD, Hardesty JL. Race and Gender Influences on Adjustment in Early Adolescence: Investigation of an Integrative Model. Child Development. 2002;73(5):1573–92.
    1. Enchautegui de Jesus N. Relationships between normative and race/ethnic-related job stressors and marital and individual well-being among Black and Latino/a workers [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: New York University; 2001.
    1. Epel OB, Kaplan G, Moran M. Perceived discrimination and health-related quality of life among Arabs and Jews in Israel: A population-based survey. BMC Public Health. 2010;10:282–91. 10.1186/1471-2458-10-282
    1. Everage NJ, Gjelsvik A, McGarvey ST, Linkletter CD, Loucks EB. Inverse associations between perceived racism and coronary artery calcification. Annals of Epidemiology. 2012;22(3):183–90. 10.1016/j.annepidem.2012.01.005
    1. Finch BK, Vega WA. Acculturation Stress, Social Support, and Self-Rated Health Among Latinos in California. J Immigr Health. 2003;5(3):109–17.
    1. Fischer AR, Shaw CM. African Americans' mental health and perceptions of racist discrimination: The moderating effects of racial socialization experiences and self-esteem. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 1999;46(3):395–407.
    1. Flores E, Tschann JM, Dimas JM, Bachen EA, Pasch LA, de Groat CL. Perceived discrimination, perceived stress, and mental and physical health among Mexican-origin adults. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences. 2008;30(4):401–24.
    1. Flores E, Tschann JM, Dimas JM, Pasch LA, de Groat CL. Perceived Racial/Ethnic Discrimination, Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms, and Health Risk Behaviors among Mexican American Adolescents. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2010;57(3):264–73. 10.1037/a0020026
    1. Ford KR, Hurd NM, Jagers RJ, Sellers RM. Caregiver Experiences of Discrimination and African American Adolescents' Psychological Health Over Time. Child Development. 2013;84(2):485–99. 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01864.x
    1. Freedenthal S, Stiffman AR. Suicidal Behavior in Urban American Indian Adolescents: A Comparison with Reservation Youth in a Southwestern State. Suicide and Life ThreateninG Behavior. 2004;34(2):160–71.
    1. French SE, Tran N, Chávez NR. Exploring the effect of in‐group and out‐group race‐related stressors on anxiety among Asian Pacific Islander American students. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 2013;43(Suppl 2):E339–E50.
    1. Galvan N. Experiences of ethnic-related discrimination and their influence on the health of Mexican immigrants [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; 2010.
    1. Gee GC, Ro A, Gavin A, Takeuchi DT. Disentangling the Effects of Racial and Weight Discrimination on Body Mass Index and Obesity Among Asian Americans. Am J Public Health. 2008;98(3):493–500. 10.2105/AJPH.2007.114025
    1. Gerrard M, Stock ML, Roberts ME, Gibbons FX, O'Hara RE, Weng CY, et al. Coping With Racial Discrimination: The Role of Substance Use. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors. 2012;26(3):550–60. 10.1037/a0027711
    1. Giamo LS, Schmitt MT, Outten HR. Perceived discrimination, group identification, and life satisfaction among multiracial people: a test of the rejection-identification model. Cultural diversity & ethnic minority psychology. 2012;18(4):319–28. 10.1037/a0029729
    1. Gibbons FX, Etcheverry PE, Stock ML, Gerrard M, Weng C-Y, Kiviniemi M, et al. Exploring the link between racial discrimination and substance use: what mediates? What buffers? Journal of personality and social psychology. 2010;99(5):785–801. 10.1037/a0019880
    1. Gibbons FX, Gerrard M, Cleveland MJ, Wills TA, Brody G. Perceived discrimination and substance use in African American parents and their children: a panel study. Journal of personality and social psychology. 2004;86(4):517–29.
    1. Gibbons FX, Yeh HC, Gerrard M, Cleveland MJ, Cutrona C, Simons RL, et al. Early experience with racial discrimination and conduct disorder as predictors of subsequent drug use: A critical period hypothesis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2007;88(Suppl 1):S27–S37.
    1. Giurgescu C, Zenk SN, Dancy BL, Park CG, Dieber W, Block R. Relationships among neighborhood environment, racial discrimination, psychological distress, and preterm birth in African American women. Journal of obstetric, gynecologic, and neonatal nursing: JOGNN / NAACOG. 2012;41(6):E51–61.
    1. Gonzales KL. Perceived medical discrimination in American Indian women: Effect on health care decisions, cancer screening, diabetes services and diabetes management [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: Oregon State University; 2010.
    1. Green NL. Stress, self-esteem and racism as factors associated with low birth weight and preterm delivery in African-American childbearing women [PH.D.]. San Francisco: University of California; 1991.
    1. Greene ML, Way N, Pahl K. Trajectories of perceived adult and peer discrimination among Black, Latino, and Asian American adolescents: Patterns and psychological correlates. Dev Psychol. 2006;42(2):218–38.
    1. Grekin ER. Perceived Racism and Alcohol Consequences Among African American and Caucasian College Students. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors. 2012;26(4):924–30. 10.1037/a0029593
    1. Gutierres SE, Saenz DS, Green BL. Job stress and health outcomes among White and Hispanic employees: A test of the person-environment fit model In: Keita GP, Hurrell JJ Jr, editors. Job stress in a changing workforce: Investigating gender, diversity, and family issues. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 1994. p. 107–25.
    1. Hammond WP. Psychosocial Correlates of Medical Mistrust Among African American Men. Am J Community Psychol. 2010;45(1–2):87–106. 10.1007/s10464-009-9280-6
    1. Han M, Lee M. Risk and Protective Factors Contributing to Depressive Symptoms in Vietnamese American College Students. Journal of College Student Development. 2011;52(2):154–66.
    1. Hansen KL, Sørlie T. Ethnic discrimination and psychological distress: A study of Sami and non-Sami populations in Norway. Transcultural Psychiatry. 2012;49(1):26–50. 10.1177/1363461511433944
    1. Harris-Britt A, Valrie CR, Kurtz-Costes B, Rowley SJ. Perceived racial discrimination and self-esteem in African American youth: Racial socialization as a protective factor. Journal of Research on Adolescents. 2007;17(4):669–82.
    1. Hausmann LRM, Jeong K, Bost JE, Kressin NR, Ibrahim SA. Perceived Racial Discrimination in Health Care: A Comparison of Veterans Affairs and Other Patients American Journal of Public Health. 2009;99(Suppl 3):S718–S24. 10.2105/AJPH.2008.150730
    1. Heim D, Hunter SC, Jones R. Perceived Discrimination, Identification, Social Capital, and Well-Being: Relationships With Physical Health and Psychological Distress in a UK Minority Ethnic Community Sample. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 2011;42(7):1145–64.
    1. Hickman NJ. Does cigarette smoking mediate the relationship between racial discrimination and depression for African Americans participating in the National Survey of American Life? [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: University of California, San Diego and San Diego State University; 2008.
    1. Hightow-Weidman LB, Phillips Gn, Jones KC, Outlaw AY, Fields SD, Smith JC, et al. Racial and sexual identity-related maltreatment among minority YMSM: prevalence, perceptions, and the association with emotional distress. AIDS patient care and STDs. 2011;25 (Suppl 1):S39–45. 10.1089/apc.2011.9877
    1. Hill LK, Kobayashi I, Hughes JW. Perceived racism and ambulatory blood pressure in African American college students. Journal of Black Psychology. 2007;33(4):404–21.
    1. Hirschel MJ. The relationship between discrimination, acculturation, and general psychological functioning in international students [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: The University of Mississippi; 2011.
    1. Hocoy D. Apartheid, racism, and Black mental health in South Africa, and the role of racial identity [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: Queen's University at Kingston (Canada); 1997.
    1. Howarter AD, Bennett KK. Perceived discrimination and health-related quality of life: testing the Reserve Capacity Model in Hispanic Americans. The Journal of social psychology. 2013;153(1):62–79.
    1. Huynh Q-L, Devos T, Dunbar CM. The psychological costs of painless but recurring experiences of racial discrimination. Cultural diversity & ethnic minority psychology. 2012;18(1):26–34. 10.1037/a0026601
    1. Huynh VW. Ethnic Microaggressions and the Health and Well-being of Latino and Asian American Adolescents [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: University of California, Los Angeles; 2011.
    1. Huynh VW, Fuligni AJ. Discrimination Hurts: The Academic, Psychological, and Physical Well-Being of Adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence. 2010;20(4):916–41.
    1. Jackson FM, Hogue CR, Phillips MT. The development of a race and gender-specific stress measure for African-American women: Jackson, Hogue, Phillips contextualized stress measure. Ethn Dis. 2005;15(4):594–600.
    1. Jackson JS, Brown TN, Williams DR, Torres M, Sellers SL, Brown K. Racism and the physical and mental health status of African Americans: a thirteen year national panel study. EthnDis. 1996;6(1–2):132–47.
    1. Jackson KF, Yoo HC, Guevarra R Jnr, Harrington BA. Role of Identity Integration on the Relationship Between Perceived Racial Discrimination and Psychological Adjustment of Multiracial People. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2012;59(2):240–50. 10.1037/a0027639
    1. Jagusztyn NE. Internalized Racism as a Moderator for Stereotype Threat: Effects on Self-Handicapping, Performance, and Cardiovascular Responses in Black Individuals [Master of Arts]: University of South Florida; 2007.
    1. Jamieson LM, Paradies YC, Gunthorpe W, Cairney SJ, Sayers SM. Oral health and social and emotional well-being in a birth cohort of Aboriginal Australian young adults. BMC public health. 2011;11:656 10.1186/1471-2458-11-656
    1. Jasinskaja-Lahti I, Liebkind K. Perceived discrimination and psychological adjustment among Russian-speaking immigrant adolescents in Finland. International Journal of Psychology. 2001;36(3):174–85.
    1. Jasinskaja-Lahti I, Liebkind K, Perhoniemi R. Perceived ethnic discrimination at work and well-being of immigrants in Finland: The moderating role of employment status and work-specific group-level control beliefs. International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 2007;31(2):223–42.
    1. Jasinskaja-Lahti I, Liebkind K, Solheim E. To Identify or Not To Identify? National Disidentification as an Alternative Reaction to Perceived Ethnic Discrimination. Applied Psychology: An International Review. 2009;58(1):105–28.
    1. Jasperse M, Ward C, Jose PE. Identity, perceived religious discrimination, and psychological well-being in Muslim immigrant women. Applied Psychology. 2012;61(2):250–71.
    1. Jenifer ES. Anger, racism, caste discrimination and posttraumatic stress disorder in African-American and Indian college students Washington, DC: Howard University; 2009.
    1. Jones HL, Cross WE Jr., DeFour DC. Race-related stress, racial identity attitudes and mental health among black women. Journal of Black Psychology. 2007;33(2):208–31.
    1. Jones MD. Longitudinal and reciprocal effects of ethnic identity and experiences of discrimination on psychosocial adjustment of Navajo (Dine) adolescents [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: Utah State University; 2008.
    1. Juang LP, Alvarez AA. Discrimination and Adjustment Among Chinese American Adolescents: Family Conflict and Family Cohesion as Vulnerability and Protective Factors. American Journal of Public Health. 2010;100(12):2403–9. 10.2105/AJPH.2009.185959
    1. Juang LP, Cookston JT. Acculturation, discrimination, and depressive symptoms among Chinese American adolescents: a longitudinal study. Journal of Primary Prevention. 2009;30(3):475–96.
    1. Kaduvettoor-Davidson A, Inman AG. South Asian Americans: Perceived Discrimination, Stress, and Well-Being. Asian American Journal of Psychology. 2013;4(3):155–65.
    1. Kaholokula J, Grandinetti A, Keller S, Nacapoy A, Kingi T, Mau M. Association between perceived racism and physiological stress indices in Native Hawaiians. Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 2012;35(1):27–37. 10.1007/s10865-011-9330-z
    1. Kemp-Blackmon V. Perceived discrimination of African-American military personnel based in Hawaii: Life experiences and the implications for self esteem [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center; 2000.
    1. Kim JGS. Racial perceptions and psychological well being in Asian and Hispanic Americans [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: Loma Linda University; 2002.
    1. Klonoff EA, Landrine H. Cross-validation of the Schedule of Racist Events. Journal of Black Psychology. 1999; 25(2):231–54.
    1. Krieger N, Carney D, Lancaster K, Waterman PD, Kosheleva A, Banaji M. Combining explicit and implicit measures of racial discrimination in health research. American journal of public health. 2010;100(8):1485–92. 10.2105/AJPH.2009.159517
    1. Krieger N, Chen JT, Waterman PD, Hartman C, Stoddard AM, Quinn MM, et al. The inverse hazard law: Blood pressure, sexual harassment, racial discrimination, workplace abuse and occupational exposures in US low-income black, white and Latino workers. Social Science & Medicine. 2008;67(12):1970–81. 10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.09.039
    1. Krieger N, Kaddour A, Koenen K, Kosheleva A, Chen JT, Waterman PD, et al. Occupational, social, and relationship hazards and psychological distress among low-income workers: implications of the ‘inverse hazard law’. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 2011;65(3):260–72. 10.1136/jech.2009.087387
    1. Krieger N, Kosheleva A, Waterman PD, Chen JT, Koenen K. Racial Discrimination, Psychological Distress, and Self-Rated Health Among US-Born and Foreign-Born Black Americans. American Journal of Public Health. 2011;101(9):1704–13. 10.2105/AJPH.2011.300168
    1. Krieger N, Smith K, Naishadham D, Hartman C, Barbeau EM. Experiences of discrimination: Validity and reliability of a self-report measure for population health research on racism and health. Soc Sci Med. 2005;61(7):1576–96.
    1. Kulis S, Marsiglia FF, Nieri T. Perceived Ethnic Discrimination versus Acculturation Stress: Influences on Substance Use among Latino Youth in the Southwest. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 2009;50(4):443–59.
    1. Lam AMC, Tsoi KW, Chan TS. Adolescent Chinese immigrants in Hong Kong: a comparison with locally born students and factors associated with their psychological well-being. International Journal of Adolescent Medical Health 2005. 17(2):157–68.
    1. Lambert SF, Herman KC, Bynum MS, Ialongo NS. Perceptions of racism and depressive symptoms in African American adolescents: the role of perceived academic and social control. Journal of youth and adolescence. 2009;38(4):519–31. 10.1007/s10964-009-9393-0
    1. LaMonica J. Occupational stressors and the psychological well-being of women in a welfare work program [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: Fordham University; 2000.
    1. Landrine H, Klonoff EA. The Schedule of Racist Events: A Measure of Racial Discrimination and a Study of Its Negative Physical and Mental Health Consequences. The Journal of Black Psychology. 1996;22(2):144–68.
    1. Larson C, Belue R, Schulandt DG, McClellan L. Relationship Between Symptoms of Depression, Functional Health Status, and Chronic Disease Among a Residential Sample of African Americans. J Ambulatory Care Manage. 2008;29(2):133–40.
    1. Lay C, Nguyen T. The role of acculturation-related and acculturation non-specific daily hassles: Vietnamese Canadian students and psychological distress. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science. 1998;30(3):172–81.
    1. LeBel TP. "If one doesn’t get you another one will”: Formerly incarcerated persons’ perceptions of discrimination. Prison Journal. 2012;92(1):63–87.
    1. Lee RM. Do ethnic identity and other group orientation protect against discrimination for Asian Americans? Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2003;50(2):133–41.
    1. Lee RM. Resilience Against Discrimination: Ethnic Identity and Other-Group Orientation as Protective Factors for Korean Americans. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2005;52(1):36–44.
    1. Lee S. Impact of ethnic identity on psychological well-being among Korean Americans in the United States [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: State University of New York at Albany; 2001.
    1. LeFevre AL. Sociocultural Mechanisms Associated with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Analysis of Latino Veterans [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: University of Maryland, Baltimore; 2011.
    1. Lewin A, Mitchell SJ, Rasmussen A, Sanders-Phillips K, Joseph JG. Do human and social capital protect young African American mothers from depression associated with ethnic discrimination and violence exposure?. Journal of Black Psychology. 2011;37(3):286–310.
    1. Liddell AL. Length of incarceration, perceived discrimination and social support as predictors of psychological distress in African-American spouses of inmates [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: California School of Professional Psychology—Los Angeles; 1998.
    1. Liebkind K, Jasinskaja-Lahti I. Acculturation and Psychological Well-Being among Immigrant Adolescents in Finland: A Comparative Study of Adolescents From Different Cultural Backgrounds. Journal of Adolescent Research. 2000;15(4):446–69.
    1. Llacer A, Amo JD, Garcia-Fulgueiras A, Ibanez-Rojo V, Garcia-Pino R, Jarrin I, et al. Discrimination and mental health in Ecuadorian immigrants in Spain. Journal of epidemiology and community health. 2009;63(9):766–72. 10.1136/jech.2008.085530
    1. Logie C, James L, Tharao W, Loutfy M. Associations Between HIV-Related Stigma, Racial Discrimination, Gender Discrimination, and Depression Among HIV-Positive African, Caribbean, and Black Women in Ontario, Canada. AIDS Patient Care & STDs. 2013;27(2):114–22. 10.1089/apc.2012.0296
    1. Loo CM, Fairbank JA, Scurfield RM, Ruch LO, King DW, Adams LJ, et al. Measuring exposure to racism: development and validation of a Race- Related Stressor Scale (RRSS) for Asian American Vietnam veterans. Psychol Assess. 2001;13(4):503–20.
    1. Lorenzo-Blanco EI, Unger JB, Ritt-Olson A, Soto D, Baezconde-Garbanati L. Acculturation, Gender, Depression, and Cigarette Smoking among U.S. Hispanic Youth: The Mediating Role of Perceived Discrimination. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 2011;40(11):1519–33. 10.1007/s10964-011-9633-y
    1. Low D, Radhakrishnan P, Schneider K, Rounds J. The Experiences of Bystanders of Workplace Ethnic Harassment. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 2007;37:2261–97.
    1. Lyles CR, Karter AJ, Young BA, Spigner C, Grembowski D, Schillinger D, et al. Correlates of patient-reported racial/ethnic health care discrimination in the Diabetes Study of Northern California (DISTANCE). Journal of Health Care for the Poor & Underserved. 2011;22(1):211–25. 10.1353/hpu.2011.0033
    1. Lyles CR, Karter AJ, Young BA, Spigner C, Grembowski D, Schillinger D, et al. Patient-reported racial/ethnic healthcare provider discrimination and medication intensification in the Diabetes Study of Northern California (DISTANCE). Journal of general internal medicine. 2011;26(10):1138–44. 10.1007/s11606-011-1729-2
    1. Mahonen TA, Jasinskaja-Lahti I. Acculturation Expectations and Experiences as Predictors of Ethnic Migrants' Psychological Well-Being. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 2013;44(5):786–806.
    1. Majied KF. The impact of racism and homophobia on depression [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: State University of New York at Albany; 2003.
    1. Major B, Kaiser CR, O'Brien LT, McCoy SK. Perceived discrimination as worldview threat or worldview confirmation: Implications for self-esteem. J PersSocPsychol. 2007;92(6):1068–86.
    1. Mak AS, Nesdale D. Migrant distress: the role of perceived racial discrimination and coping resources. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 2001;31(1):2632–47.
    1. Mansouri F, Jenkins L, Morgan L, Taouk M. The Impact of Racism upon the Health and Wellbeing of Young Australians Melbourne: Foundation for Young Australians and the Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation, Deakin University; 2009.
    1. Martin MJ. Racial discrimination and delinquency: Economic hardship, communities, discrimination, and conduct disorder among African American youth Davis: University of California; 2005.
    1. Matthews CJ. Generational status, racial, and ethnic identity, and psychological well-being among Afro-Caribbean college students [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: Fordham University; 2012.
    1. Matthews DD, Hammond WP, Nuru-Jeter A, Cole-Lewis Y, Melvin T. Racial discrimination and depressive symptoms among African-American men: The mediating and moderating roles of masculine self-reliance and John Henryism. Psychology of Men & Masculinity. 2013;14(1):35–46.
    1. McNeil S, Harris-McKoy D, Brantley C, Fincham F, Beach SRH. Middle class african american mothers’ depressive symptoms mediate perceived discrimination and reported child externalizing behaviors. Journal of Child and Family Studies. 2013;23(2):381–8.
    1. Medley-Proctor KN. Racial discrimination in the job search: Psychological implications for African Americans [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: The George Washington University; 2005.
    1. Mesche GS, Turgeman H, Fishman G. Perceived Discrimination and the Well-being of Immigrant Adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 2008;37(5):592–604.
    1. Moghaddam FM, Taylor DM, Ditto B, Jacobs K, Bianchi E. Psychological distress and perceived discrimination: a study of women from India. International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 2002;26(4):381–90.
    1. Moore KM. The mental health implications of experiencing racial/ethnic microaggressions among Latina/os: Cognitive, affective, and behavioral components [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: Marquette University; 2012.
    1. Moore-Greene GM, Gross SM, Silver KD, Perrino CS. Chronic stress and decreased physical exercise: impact on weight for African American women. Ethnicity & disease. 2012;22(2):185–91.
    1. Moradi B, Hasan NT. Arab American Persons' Reported Experiences of Discrimination and Mental Health: The Mediating Role of Personal Control. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2004;51(4):418–28.
    1. Moradi B, Risco C. Perceived discrimination experiences and mental health of Latina/o American persons. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2006;53(4):411–21.
    1. Moradi B, Subich LM. A concomitant examination of the relations of perceived racism and the sexist events to psychological distress for African American women. Counseling Psychologist. 2003;31(4):451–69.
    1. Morris JK. Latina college students: The impact of stress, acculturation, and social support on psychological well-being and distress [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: California School of Professional Psychology—Los Angeles; 1997.
    1. Murry VM, Brown PA, Brody GH, Cutrona CE, Simons RL. Racial discrimination as a moderator of the links among stress, maternal psychological functioning, and family relationships. J Marriage Fam. 2001;63(4):915–26.
    1. Murry VM, Harrell AW, Brody GH, Chen Y-F, Simons RL, Black AR, et al. Long-Term Effects of Stressors on Relationship Well-Being and Parenting among Rural African American Women. Family Relations. 2008;57(2):117–27.
    1. Nair RL. Cultural stressors, supportiveness, and psychopathology among Mexican American adolescents: A test of three competing models [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: Arizona State University; 2008.
    1. Neblett EW Jr., Carter SE. The protective role of racial identity and Africentric worldview in the association between racial discrimination and blood pressure. Psychosomatic medicine. 2012;74(5):509–16. 10.1097/PSY.0b013e3182583a50
    1. Neblett EWJ, White RL, Ford KR, Philip CL, Nguyên HX, Sellers RM. Patterns of racial socialization and psychological adjustment: Can parental communications about race reduce the impact of racial discrimination?. Journal of Research on Adolescence. 2008;18(3):477–515.
    1. Neto F. Satisfaction with life among adolescents from immigrant families in Portugal. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 2001;30(1):53–67.
    1. Neto F. Psycho-Social Predictors of Perceived Discrimination Among Adolescents of Immigrant Background: A Portuguese Study. Journal of Ethnic & Migration Studies. 2006;32(1):89–109.
    1. Neto F, Barros J. Predictors of Loneliness Among Adolescents from Portuguese Immigrant Families in Switzerland. Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal. 2000;28(2):193–206.
    1. Nyborg VM, Curry JF. The impact of perceived racism: psychological symptoms among African American boys. Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology: the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53. 2003;32(2):258–66.
    1. Odom EC, Vernon-Feagans L. Buffers of Racial Discrimination: Links with Depression among Rural African American Mothers. Journal of Marriage and Family. 2010;72(2):346–59.
    1. Oh MY. Contingencies of self-esteem: The psychological well-being and impact of perceived experiences of discrimination among Korean Americans (Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, 2001) Dissertation Abstracts International. 2001;2B(1093).
    1. Omma L, Jacobsson LH, Petersen S. The health of young Swedish Sami with special reference to mental health. International journal of circumpolar health. 2012;71:18381 10.3402/ijch.v71i0.18381
    1. Ong AD, Fuller-Rowell T, Burrow AL. Racial discrimination and the stress process. Journal of personality and social psychology. 2009;96(6):1259–71. 10.1037/a0015335
    1. Oppedal B. The role of social support in the association between perceived discrimination and mental health among youth immigrants in Norway. International Journal of Developmental Science. 2011;5(1–2):85–99.
    1. Oppedal B, Roysamb E, Heyerdahl S. Ethnic group, acculturation, and psychiatric problems in young immigrants. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines. 2007;46(6):646–60.
    1. Ornelas IJ, Perreira KM. The role of migration in the development of depressive symptoms among Latino immigrant parents in the USA. Social science & medicine (1982). 2011;73(8):1169–77. 10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.07.002
    1. Padela AI, Heisler M. The Association of Perceived Abuse and Discrimination After September 11, 2001, With Psychological Distress, Level of Happiness, and Health Status Among Arab Americans. American Journal of Public Health. 2010;100(2):284–91. 10.2105/AJPH.2009.164954
    1. Pan SW, Spittal PM. Health effects of perceived racial and religious bullying among urban adolescents in China: A cross-sectional national study. Global Public Health. 2013;8(6):685–97. 10.1080/17441692.2013.799218
    1. Peek ME, Nunez-Smith M, Drum M, Lewis TT. Adapting the everyday discrimination scale to medical settings: reliability and validity testing in a sample of African American patients. Ethnicity and Disease. 2011;21(4):502–9.
    1. Peters RM. Racism and hypertension among African Americans. Western Journal of Nursing Research. 2004;26(6):612–31.
    1. Peters RM. The Relationship of Racism, Chronic Stress Emotions, and Blood Pressure. Journal of Nursing Scholarship. 2006;38(3):234–40.
    1. Phinney JS, Madden T, Santos LJ. Psychological variables as predictors of perceived ethnic discrimination among minority and immigrant adolescents. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 1998;28(11):937–53.
    1. Piedrahita Palacio SP. Examining social support as a moderator of the link between perceived discrimination and psychological health among Latinos/ as in the United States Carbondale: Southern Illinois University; 2007.
    1. Pieterse AL, Carter RT. An examination of the relationship between general life stress, racism-related stress, and psychological health among black men. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2007;54(1):101–9.
    1. Pieterse AL, Carter RT. An Exploratory Investigation of the Relationship between Racism, Racial Identity, Perceptions of Health, and Health Locus of Control among Black American Women. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved. 2010;21(1):334–48. 10.1353/hpu.0.0244
    1. Pieterse AL, Carter RT. The Role of Racial Identity in Perceived Racism and Psychological Stress Among Black American Adults: Exploring Traditional and Alternative Approaches. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 2010;40(5):1028–53.
    1. Pointer MA, Livingston JN, Yancey S, McClelland MK, Bukoski RD. Psychosocial factors contribute to resting blood pressures in African Americans. Ethn Dis. 2008;18(3):289–93.
    1. Pole N, Best SR, Metzler T, Marmar CR. Why Are Hispanics at Greater Risk for PTSD? Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 2009;11(2):144–61.
    1. Polek E, hrle J, van Oudenhoven JP. The role of attachment styles, perceived discrimination, and cultural distance in adjustment of German and Eastern European immigrants in the Netherlands. Cross-Cultural Research. 2010;44(1):60–88.
    1. Postmes T, Branscombe NR. Influence of long-term racial environmental composition on subjective well-being in African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2002;83(3):735–51.
    1. Poston WS, Pavlik VN, Hyman DJ, Ogbonnaya K, Hanis CL, Haddock CK, et al. Genetic bottlenecks, perceived racism, and hypertension risk among African Americans and first-generation African immigrants. Journal of human hypertension. 2001;15(5):341–51.
    1. Prelow HM, Danoff-Burg S, Swenson RR, Pugiano D. The impact of ecological risk and perceived discrimination on the psychological adjustment of African American and European American youth. Journal of CommunityPsychology. 2004;32(4):375–89.
    1. Prelow HM, Mosher CE, Bowman MA. Perceived racial discrimination, social support, and psychological adjustment among African American college students. Journal of Black Psychology. 2006;32(4):442–54.
    1. Priest N, Paradies Y, Stevens M, Bailie R. Exploring relationships between racism, housing and child illness in remote Aboriginal communities. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 2012;66(5):440–7. 10.1136/jech.2010.117366
    1. Priest N, Paradies Y, Stewart P, Luke J. Racism and health among urban Aboriginal young people. BMC Public Health. 2011;11(568):1–9.
    1. Priest NC, Paradies YC, Gunthorpe W, Cairney SJ, Sayers SM. Racism as a determinant of social and emotional wellbeing for Aboriginal Australian youth. The Medical journal of Australia. 2011;194(10):546–50.
    1. Raver JL, Nishii LH. Once, twice, or three times as harmful? Ethnic harassment, gender harassment, and generalized workplace harassment. Journal of Applied Psychology. 2010;95(2):236–54. 10.1037/a0018377
    1. Rees CA. Patient and provider factors, patient-reported racial/ethnic discrimination in the healthcare setting, and quality of care in the diabetes study of Northern California (distance) Seattle: University of Washington; 2010.
    1. Reisen CA, Brooks KD, Zea MC, Poppen PJ, Bianchi FT. Can additive measures add to an intersectional understanding? Experiences of gay and ethnic discrimination among HIV-positive Latino gay men. Cultural diversity & ethnic minority psychology. 2013;19(2):208–17. 10.1037/a0031906
    1. Revollo H-W, Qureshi A, Collazos F, Valero S, Casas M. Acculturative stress as a risk factor of depression and anxiety in the Latin American immigrant population. International Review of Psychiatry. 2011;23(1):84–92. 10.3109/09540261.2010.545988
    1. Rich Rice KL. The effects of perceived racial discrimination on interparental conflict and child emotional adjustment in White, Hispanic, and Black families [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: The University of Texas at Arlington; 2008.
    1. Rivas-Drake D, Hughes D, Way N. A closer look at peer discrimination, ethnic identity, and psychological well-being among urban Chinese American sixth graders. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 2008. 37 (1):12–21.
    1. Roberts CB, Vines AI, Kaufman JS, James SA. Cross-sectional association between perceived discrimination and hypertension in African-American men and women: the Pitt County Study. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2008;167(5):624–32.
    1. Roberts ME, Gibbons FX, Gerrard M, Weng CY, Murry VM, Simons LG, et al. From Racial Discrimination to Risky Sex: Prospective Relations Involving Peers and Parents. Developmental Psychology. 2012;48(1):89–102. 10.1037/a0025430
    1. Rodriguez MG. Job stress and perceptions among Hispanic professionals of prejudice and discrimination in the workplace [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: The University of Tennessee; 2002.
    1. Rosas MC. The impact of affirmative action legislation and racism experiences on the collective self-esteem and psychological well-being of college students of color Los Angeles: California School of Professional Psychology; 1999.
    1. Rospenda KM, Richman JA, Shannon CA. Prevalence and Mental Health Correlates of Harassment and Discrimination in the Workplace. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2009;24(5):819–43. 10.1177/0886260508317182
    1. Rousseau C, Hassan G, Measham T, Moreau N, Lashley M, Castro T, et al. From the family universe to the outside world: Family relations, school attitude, and perception of racismin Caribbean and Filipino adolescents. Health & Place. 2009;15(3):751–60. 10.1016/j.healthplace.2008.12.004
    1. Rucker LS. Correlates of worry and generalized anxiety disorder in Black/African Americans. Dissertation Abstracts International, Section B: Sciences and Engineering. 2005;66(4-B).
    1. Rucker LS, West LM, Roemer L. Relationships among perceived racial stress, intolerance of uncertainty, and worry in a black sample. Behavior therapy. 2010;41(2):245–53. 10.1016/j.beth.2009.04.001
    1. Salgado de Synder VN. Factors associated with acculturative stress and depressive symptomatology. Psychology of Women Quarterly. 1987;11(4):475–88.
    1. Santana V, Almeida-Filho N, Roberts R, Cooper SP. Skin Colour, Perception of Racism and Depression among Adolescents in Urban Brazil. Child & Adolescent Mental Health. 2007;12(3):125–31.
    1. Schaafsma J. Discrimination and subjective well‐being: The moderating roles of identification with the heritage group and the host majority group. European Journal of Social Psychology. 2011;41(6):786–95.
    1. Schmitt MT, Spears R, Branscombe NR. Constructing a minority group identity out of shared rejection: The case of international students. European Journal of Social Psychology. 2003;33(1):1–12.
    1. Schneider KT, Hitlan RT, Radhakrishnan P. An examination of the nature and correlates of ethnic harassment experiences in multiple contexts. Journal of Applied Psychology. 2000;85(1):3–12.
    1. Seaton EK, Neblett EW, Upton RD, Hammond WP, Sellers RM. The Moderating Capacity of Racial Identity between Perceived Discrimination and Psychological Well-Being over Time among African American Youth. Child Development. 2011;82(6):1850–67. 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01651.x
    1. Sellers RM, Caldwell CH, Schmeelk-Cone KH, Zimmerman MA. Racial Identity, Racial Discrimination, Perceived Stress, and Psychological Distress among African American Young Adults. Journal of Health & Social Behavior. 2003;44(3):302–17.
    1. Sellers RM, Shelton JN. The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination. Journal of personality and social psychology. 2003;84(5):1079–92.
    1. Sellers RM, Copeland-Linder N, Martin PP, L'Heureux Lewis R. Racial Identity Matters: The Relationship between Racial Discrimination and Psychological Functioning in African American Adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence. 2006;16(2):187–216.
    1. Sellers SL, Bonham V, Neighbors HW, Amell JW. Effects of racial discrimination and health behaviors on mental and physical health of middle-class African American men. Health education & behavior: the official publication of the Society for Public Health Education. 2009;36(1):31–44.
    1. Sharif H. Obesity-related behaviors, perceived racism, and health status among African American and black immigrant students [Ed.D.]. Ann Arbor: Teachers College, Columbia University; 2007.
    1. Shariff-Marco S. Racism and Cancer Prevention: The Role of Perceived Racism and Race-based Residential Segregation on Behavioural Cancer Risk Profiles. Baltimore: John Hopkins University; 2006.
    1. Shariff-Marco S, Klassen AC, Bowie JV. Racial/Ethnic Differences in Self-Reported Racism and Its Association With Cancer-Related Health Behaviors. American Journal of Public Health. 2010;100(2):364–74. 10.2105/AJPH.2009.163899
    1. Sharma A. Acculturation and psychological adjustment: The case of second-generation Asian Indians Ann Arbor: State Unviersity of New York at Bufallo; 1995.
    1. Sheridan LP. Islamophobia pre- and post-September 11th, 2001. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2006;21(3):317–36.
    1. Shorey HS, Cowan G, Sullivan MP. Predicting perceptions of discrimination among Hispanics and Anglos. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences. 2002;24(1):3–22.
    1. Shrake EK, Rhee S. Ethnic identity as a predictor of problem behaviors among Korean American Adolescents. Adolescence. 2004;39(155):601–22.
    1. Siefert K, Bowman PJ, Helfin CM, Danzinger S, Williams DR. Social and environmental predictors of maternal depression in current and recent welfare recipients. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2000;70(4):510–22.
    1. Silove D, Sinnerbrink I, Field A, Manicavasagar V, Steel Z. Anxiety, depression and PTSD in asylum-seekers: assocations with pre-migration trauma and post-migration stressors. The British journal of psychiatry: the journal of mental science. 1997;170:351–7.
    1. Simons RL, Chen Y-F, Stewart EA, Brody GH. Incidents of Discrimination and Risk for Delinquency: A Longitudinal Test of Strain Theory with an African American Sample. Justice Quarterly. 2003;20(4):827–54.
    1. Simons RL, Murry V, McLoyd V, Lin KH, Cutrona C, Conger RD. Discrimination, crime, ethnic identity, and parenting as correlates of depressive symptoms among African American children: A multilevel analysis. Development and Psychopathology. 2002;14(2):371–93.
    1. Sinkule JA. The psychological functioning of Bosnian refugees residing in the United States: An examination of the impact of trauma, acculturation, community connectedness, perceived discrimination and ethnic identity [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: George Mason University; 2008.
    1. Smith J. A study of stress and perceived health status among international college students [M.S.]. Ann Arbor: Utah State University; 2003.
    1. Smokowski PR, Bacallao ML. Acculturation, internalizing mental health symptoms, and self-esteem: cultural experiences of Latino adolescents in North Carolina. Child psychiatry and human development. 2007;37(3):273–92.
    1. Smokowski PR, Bacallao ML, Lee Buchana R. Interpersonal mediators linking acculturation stressors to subsequent internalizing symptoms and self-esteem in latino adolescents. Journal of Community Psychology. 2009;37(8):1024–45.
    1. Smokowski PR, Rose RA, Bacallao M. Influence of Risk Factors and Cultural Assets on Latino Adolescents’ Trajectories of Self-Esteem and Internalizing Symptoms. Child Psychiatry & Human Development. 2010;41(2):133–55. 10.1007/s10578-009-0157-6
    1. Soriano FI, Ramirez A. Unequal employment status and ethnicity: Further analyses of the USPI-ESPI model. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences. 1991;13(4):391–400.
    1. Soylu A. Causes and consequences of work stress: A comparison of foreign and American workers in the United States. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section A Humanities and Social Sciences. 2008;69(1):290.
    1. Staggers-Hakim R. The moderating effect of discrimination and the intersection of race, class, and gender on obesity [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: Howard University; 2009.
    1. Steffen PR, Bowden M. Sleep disturbance mediates the relationship between perceived racism and depressive symptoms. EthnDis. 2006;16(1):16–21.
    1. Steffen PR, McNeilly M, Anderson N, Sherwood A. Effects of perceived racism and anger inhibition on ambulatory blood pressure in African Americans. Psychosomatic medicine. 2003;65(5):746–50.
    1. Stein GL, Gonzalez LM, Huq N. Cultural stressors and the hopelessness model of depressive symptoms in Latino adolescents. Journal of youth and adolescence. 2012;41(10):1339–49. 10.1007/s10964-012-9765-8
    1. Stevens GWJM, Vollebergh WAM, Pels TVM, Crijnen AAM. Predicting internalizing problems in Moroccan immigrant adolescents in the Netherlands. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 2005;40(12):1003–11.
    1. Stevens-Watkins D, Perry B, Harp KL, Oser CB. Racism and Illicit Drug Use Among African American Women: The Protective Effects of Ethnic Identity, Affirmation, and Behavior. Journal of Black Psychology. 2012;38(4):471–96.
    1. Suleiman Gonzalez LP. Stress, sociocultural mediators and mental health in Mexican Americans [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: Loyola University of Chicago; 1999.
    1. Swami V, Arteche A, Chamorro-Premuzic T, Furnham A. Sociocultural adjustment among sojourning Malaysian students in Britain: a replication and path analytic extension. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology. 2010;45(1):57–65. 10.1007/s00127-009-0042-4
    1. Szalacha LA, Erkut S, Garcia Coll C, Alarcon O, Fields JP, Ceder I. Discrimination and Puerto Rican children's and adolescents' mental health. Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2003;9(2):141–55.
    1. Szanton S, Rifkind J, Mohanty J, Miller E, Thorpe R, Nagababu E, et al. Racial Discrimination Is Associated with a Measure of Red Blood Cell Oxidative Stress: A Potential Pathway for Racial Health Disparities. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 2012;19(4):489–95. 10.1007/s12529-011-9188-z
    1. Szymanski DM, Obiri O. Do Religious Coping Styles Moderate or Mediate the External and Internalized Racism-Distress Links? Counseling Psychologist. 2011;39(3):438–62.
    1. Tartakovsky E. A longitudinal study of acculturative stress and homesickness: high-school adolescents immigrating from Russia and Ukraine to Israel without parents. Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology. 2007;42(6):485–94.
    1. Tartakovsky E. The Psychological Well-Being of Unaccompanied Minors: A Longitudinal Study of Adolescents Immigrating from Russia and Ukraine to Israel without Parents. Journal of Research on Adolescence. 2009;19(2):177–204.
    1. Tawa J, Suyemoto KL, Roemer L. Implications of Perceived Interpersonal and Structural Racism for Asian Americans' Self-Esteem. Basic and Applied Social Psychology. 2012;34(4):349–58.
    1. Taylor J, Jackson B. Factors affecting alcohol consumption in black women. Part I. Int J Addictions. 1990;25(11):1287–300.
    1. Taylor J, Turner RJ. Perceived discrimination, social stress, and depression in the transition to adulthood: Racial contrasts. Social Psychology Quarterly. 2002;65(3):213–25.
    1. Terrell BP. Impact of ethnic socialization, ethnic identity, and discrimination on self-esteem and parenting attitudes of middle-class African-American men [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: Institute for Clinical Social Work (Chicago); 2003.
    1. Thoma BC, Huebner DM. Health Consequences of Racist and Antigay Discrimination for Multiple Minority Adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 2013;19(4):404–13. 10.1037/a0031739
    1. Thomas A, Cairney S, Gunthorpe W, Paradies Y, Sayers S. Strong Souls: The Development and validation of a culturally appropriate tool for assessment of social and emotional well being in Indigenous youth. Aust NZ J Psychiatry. 2010;44(1):40–8.
    1. Thomas D-M. The influence of perceptions and experiences of racial discrimination on body mass index among the Black Women's Health Study cohort [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: Virginia Commonwealth University; 2006.
    1. Thompson HS. The relationship between chronic acculturative/ racial stressors and cardiovascular outcomes in African American adults: Is cardiovascular reactivity a mediating variable?: University of Pittsburgh; 1999.
    1. Todorova ILG, Falcon LM, Lincoln AK, Price LL. Perceived discrimination, psychological distress and health. Sociology of health & illness. 2010;32(6):843–61. 10.1111/j.1467-9566.2010.01257.x
    1. Torres L, Driscoll MW, Burrow AL. Racial Microaggressions and Psychological Functioning among Highly Achieving African-Americans: A Mixed-Methods Approach. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 2010;29(10):1074–99.
    1. Torres L, Driscoll MW, Voell M. Discrimination, acculturation, acculturative stress, and Latino psychological distress: A moderated mediational model. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 2012;18(1):17–25. 10.1037/a0026710
    1. Torres L, Ong AD. A Daily Diary Investigation of Latino Ethnic Identity, Discrimination, and Depression. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 2010;16(4):561–8. 10.1037/a0020652
    1. Torres L, Yznaga SD, Moore KM. Discrimination and Latino psychological distress: The moderating role of ethnic identity exploration and commitment. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 2011;81(4):526–34. 10.1111/j.1939-0025.2011.01117.x
    1. Tran N. Using color-blindness to understand the effects of discrimination on the well-being of Asian Americans [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: University of Illinois at Chicago; 2010.
    1. Trevino B, Ernst FA. Skin tone, racism, locus of control, hostility, and blood pressure in Hispanic college students. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences. 2012;34(2):340–8.
    1. Tull ES, Chambers EC. Internalized racism is associated with glucose intolerance among black Americans in the US Virgin Islands. Diabetes Care. 2001;24(8):1498
    1. Tull ES, Cort MA, Gwebu ET, Gwebu K. Internalized racism is associated with elevated fasting glucose in a sample of adult women but not men in Zimbabwe. EthnDis. 2007;17(4):731–5.
    1. Tull ES, Wickramasuriya T, Taylor J, Smith-Burns V, Brown M, Champagnie G, et al. Relationship of internalized racism to abdominal obesity and blood pressure in Afro-Caribbean women. Journal of the National Medical Association. 1999;91(8):447–52.
    1. Tummala-Narra P, Claudius M. Perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms among immigrant-origin adolescents. Cultural diversity & ethnic minority psychology. 2013;19(3):257–69. 10.1037/a0032960
    1. Tynes BM, Umaña-Taylor AJ, Rose CA, Lin J, Anderson CJ. Online racial discrimination and the protective function of ethnic identity and self-esteem for African American adolescents. Developmental Psychology. 2012;48(2):343–55. 10.1037/a0027032
    1. Ullah J. An examination of the role of social constraint in the relationship of perceived racism to depression and anxiety [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: St. John's University (New York); 2011.
    1. Umaña-Taylor AJ, Updegraff KA. Latino adolescents’ mental health: Exploring the interrelations among discrimination, ethnic identity, cultural orientation, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms. Journal of Adolescence. 2007;30(4):549–67.
    1. Vasquez J. The relationship between ethnic identity and ethnic- racial socialization in predicting perceived discrimination and subjective well-being among Latino college students in the southwest. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B Sciences and Engineering. 2010;70(10):6610.
    1. Verkuyten M. Perceived Discrimination and Self-Esteem among Ethnic Minority Adolescents. Journal of Social Psychology. 1998;138(4):479–93.
    1. Verkuyten M. The puzzle of high self-esteem among ethnic minorities: Comparing explicit and implicit self-esteem. Self and Identity. 2005;4(2):177–92.
    1. Verkuyten M, Nekuee S. Self-Esteem, Discrimination, and Coping Among Refugees: The Moderating Role of Self-Categorization. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 2001;31(5):1058–75.
    1. Vremăroiu A-M, Fodoreanu L. Perceived discrimination, a risk factor for developing psychoses in Romanian emigrants? Clujul Medical. 2013;86(1):53–6.
    1. Wadsworth E, Dhillon K, Shaw C, Bhui K, Stansfeld S, Smith A. Racial discrimination, ethnicity and work stress. Occup Med (Lond). 2007;57(1):18–24.
    1. Wagner GJ, Bogart LM, Galvan FH, Banks D, Klein DJ. Discrimination as a key mediator of the relationship between posttraumatic stress and HIV treatment adherence among African American men. Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 2012;35(1): 8–18. 10.1007/s10865-011-9320-1
    1. Wagner J, Abbott G. Depression and depression care in diabetes: Relationship to perceived discrimination in African Americans. Diabetes Care. 2007;30(2):364–6.
    1. Walls ML. A mixed methods examination of Indigenous youth suicide [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: The University of Nebraska—Lincoln; 2007.
    1. Walters JM. Testing a biopsychosocial model of perceived racism among Latinos [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; 2004.
    1. Wei M, CJ. Y, RC. C, S. C, JC. S. Family Support, Self-Esteem, and Perceived Racial Discrimination Among Asian American Male College Students. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2013;60(3):453–61. 10.1037/a0032344
    1. Wei M, Ku T-Y, Russell DW, Mallinckrodt B, Liao KY-H. Moderating effects of three coping strategies and self-esteem on perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms: A minority stress model for Asian international students. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2008;55(4):451–62. 10.1037/a0012511
    1. Wei M, Wang KT, Heppner PP, Du Y. Ethnic and mainstream social connectedness, perceived racial discrimination, and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2012;59(3):486–93. 10.1037/a0028000
    1. Wei M, Wang KT, Ku T-Y. A development and validation of the Perceived Language Discrimination Scale. Cultural diversity & ethnic minority psychology. 2012;18(4):340–51. 10.1037/a0029453
    1. Whitbeck LB, Hoyt DR, McMorris BJ, Chen XJ, Stubben JD. Perceived discrimination and early substance abuse among American Indian children. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 2001;42(4):405–24.
    1. Wickrama TKA. The association between racial discrimination and depressive symptoms: An examination of African American couples. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section A Humanities and Social Sciences. 2010;71(2):601.
    1. Williams DR, Spencer MS, Jackson JS. Race, stress, and physical health: The role of group identity In: Contrada RJ, Ashmore RD, editors. Self, social identity, and physical health: Interdisciplinary explorations. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1999. p. 71–100.
    1. Wong CA. The risks and protective factors of the content of racial stigma on African-American and White early adolescents' development [Ph.D.]. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan; 1997.
    1. Yap SCY. Understanding the association between perceived discrimination, racial identity and well-being [M.A.]. Ann Arbor: Michigan State University; 2011.
    1. Yap SCY, Settles IH, Pratt-Hyatt JS. Mediators of the relationship between racial identity and life satisfaction in a community sample of African American women and men. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 2011;17(1):89–97. 10.1037/a0022535
    1. Yoder KA, Whitbeck LB, Hoyt DR, LaFromboise T. Suicidal Ideation Among American Indian Youths. Archives of Suicide Research. 2006;10(2):177–90.
    1. Yoo HC, Lee RM. Ethnic Identity and Approach-Type Coping as Moderators of the Racial Discrimination/Well-Being Relation in Asian Americans. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2005;52(4):497–506.
    1. Yoon E, Hacker J, Hewitt A, Abrams M, Cleary S. Social Connectedness, Discrimination, and Social Status as Mediators of Acculturation/Enculturation and Well-Being. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2012;59(1):86–96. 10.1037/a0025366
    1. Zeiders KH, Umaña-Taylor AJ, Derlan CL. Trajectories of depressive symptoms and self-esteem in Latino youths: Examining the role of gender and perceived discrimination. Developmental Psychology. 2013;49(5):951–63. 10.1037/a0028866
    1. Cunningham TJ, Berkman LF, Kawachi I, Jacobs DR, Seeman TE, Kiefe CI, et al. Changes in Waist Circumference and Body Mass Index in the US Cardia Cohort: fixed-effects associations with self-reported experiences of racial/ethnic discrimination. Journal of Biosocial Science. 2013;45(02):267–78.
    1. Hunte HER. Association Between Perceived Interpersonal Everyday Discrimination and Waist Circumference Over a 9-Year Period in the Midlife Development in the United States Cohort Study. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2011;173(11):1232–9. 10.1093/aje/kwq463
    1. Brondolo E, Lackey S, Love E. Race, Racism & Health: Evaluating racial disparities in hypertension to understand the links between racism and health status In: Baum A, Revenson TA, Singer JE, editors. Handbook of health psychology. 2nd ed: New York: Psychology Press; 2011. p. 569–94.
    1. Chae DH, Nuru-Jeter AM, Adler NE. Implicit racial bias as a moderator of the association between racial discrimination and hypertension: a study of Midlife African American men. Psychosomatic Medicine. 2012;74(9):961–4. 10.1097/PSY.0b013e3182733665
    1. Krieger N, Sidney S. Racial discrimination and blood pressure: the CARDIA Study of young black and white adults. Am J Public Health. 1996;86(10):1370–8.
    1. Berger M, Sarnyai Z. More than skin deep: Stress neurobiology and mental health consequences of racial discrimination. Stress. 2015;18(1):1–10. 10.3109/10253890.2014.989204
    1. Eisenberger N, Lieberman M, Williams K. Does Rejection Hurt? An fMRI study of social exclusion. Science. 2003;302:290–2.
    1. LaVeist TA, Thorpe RJ Jr, Pierre G. The Relationships among Vigilant Coping Style, Race, and Depression. Journal of Social Issues. 2014;70(2):241–55.
    1. Hicken MT, Lee H, Ailshire J, Burgard SA, Williams DR. "Every Shut Eye, Ain't Sleep": The Role of Racism-Related Vigilance in Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Sleep Difficulty Race and Social Problems. 2013;5(2):100–12.
    1. Hicken MT, Lee H, Morenoff J, House JS, Williams DR. Racial/ethnic disparities in hypertension prevalence: reconsidering the role of chronic stress. American Journal of Public Health. 2014;104:117–23. 10.2105/AJPH.2013.301395
    1. Utsey SO, Belvet B, Hubbard RR, Fischer NL, Opare-Henaku A, Gladney LL. Development and Validation of the Prolonged Activation and Anticipatory Race-Related Stress Scale. Journal of Black Psychology. 2013;39(6):532–59.
    1. Borders A, Liang CTH. Rumination partially mediates the associations between perceived ethnic discrimination, emotional distress, and aggression. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology. 2011;17(2):125–33. 10.1037/a0023357
    1. Himmelstein MS, Young DM, Sanchez DT, Jackson JS. Vigilance in the discrimination-stress model for Black Americans. Psychology and Health. 2015;30(3):253–67. 10.1080/08870446.2014.966104
    1. Clark R, Anderson NB, Bulatao RA, Cohen B. Significance of perceived racism: Toward understanding ethnic-group disparities in health, the later years Critical Perspectives on Racial and Ethnic Differences in Health in Late Life. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2004. p. 540–66.
    1. Gee GC, Walsemann KM, Brondolo E. A Life Course Perspective on How Racism May Be Related to Health Inequities. American Journal of Public Health. 2012;102(5):967–74. 10.2105/AJPH.2012.300666
    1. Kim IH, Noh S. Ethnic and gender differences in the association between discrimination and depressive symptoms among five immigrant groups. Journal of immigrant and minority health / Center for Minority Public Health. 2014;16(6):1167–75. 10.1007/s10903-013-9969-3
    1. Shigemoto Y, Thoen MA, Robitschek C, Ashton MW. Assessing Measurement Invariance of the Personal Growth Initiative Scale-II Among Hispanics, African Americans, and European Americans. J Couns Psychol. 2015:In press.
    1. Mayrl D, Saperstein A. When white people report racial discrimination: The role of region, religion, and politics. Social Science Research. 2013;42(3):742–54. 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.12.007
    1. Carlisle SK. Perceived discrimination and chronic health in adults from nine ethnic subgroups in the USA. Ethnicity and Health. 2014;20(3):309–26. 10.1080/13557858.2014.921891
    1. Rosenthal R. The file drawer problem and tolerance for null results. Psychological Bulletin. 1979;86(3):638–41.
    1. Hausmann LRM, Kressin NR, Hanusa BH, Ibrahim SA. Perceived racial discrimination in health care and its association with patients' healthcare experiences: does the measure matter? Ethnicity & Disease. 2010;20:40–7.
    1. Bastos JL, Celeste RK, Faerstein E, Barros AJD. Racial discrimination and health: A systematic review of scales with a focus on their psychometric properties. Social Science & Medicine. 2010;70(7):1091–9. 10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.12.020
    1. Yoo HC, Pituc ST. Assessments of perceived racial stereotypes, discrimination, and racism APA handbooks in psychology: American Psychological Association, Washington, DC; 2013. p. 605–451.
    1. Williams DR, Yu Y, Jackson JS, Anderson NB. Racial differences in physical and mental health: socioeconomic status, stress, and discrimination. Journal of Health Psychology. 1997;2(3):335–51. 10.1177/135910539700200305
    1. Lewis TT, Yang FM, Jacobs EA, Fitchett G. Racial/Ethnic Differences in Responses to the Everyday Discrimination Scale: A Differential Item Functioning Analysis. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2012;175(5):391–401. 10.1093/aje/kwr287
    1. Stucky BD, et al. An Item Factor Analysis and Item Response Theory-Based Revision of the Everyday Discrimination Scale. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 2011;17(2):175–85. 10.1037/a0023356
    1. Reeve BB, Willis G, Shariff-Marco S, et al. Comparing Cognitive Interviewing and Psychometric Methods to Evaluate a Racial Ethnic Discrimination Scale. Field Methods. 2011;23(4):397–419.
    1. Chana KT, Trana TV, Nguyen TN. Cross-Cultural Equivalence of a Measure of Perceived Discrimination Between Chinese-Americans and Vietnamese-Americans. Journal of Ethnic And Cultural Diversity in Social Work. 2012;21(1):20–36.
    1. Kim G, Sellbom M, Ford KL. Race/ethnicity and measurement equivalence of the Everyday Discrimination Scale. Psychological Assessment. 2014;26(3):892–900. 10.1037/a0036431
    1. Cunningham TJ, Berkman LF, Gortmaker SL, Kiefe CI, Jacobs DR, Seeman TE, et al. Assessment of differential item functioning in the experiences of discrimination index: the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) Study. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2011;174:1266–74. 10.1093/aje/kwr253
    1. Benjamins MR. Comparing measures of racial/ethnic discrimination, coping, and associations with health-related outcomes in a diverse sample. Journal Of Urban Health. 2013;90(5):832–48. 10.1007/s11524-013-9787-x
    1. Tran AGTT. Family Contexts: Parental Experiences of Discrimination and Child Mental Health. Am J Community Psychol. 2014;53(1–2):37–46. 10.1007/s10464-013-9607-1
    1. Halim ML, Yoshikawa H, Amodio DM. Cross-Generational Effects of Discrimination Among Immigrant Mothers: Perceived Discrimination Predicts Child’s Healthcare Visits for Illness. Health Psychology. 2013;32(2):203–11. 10.1037/a0027279
    1. Blank RM, Dabady M, Citro CF. Measuring Racial Discrimination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2004.
    1. Shonkoff JP, Boyce W, McEwen B. Neuroscience, molecular biology, and the childhood roots of health disparities: building a new framework for health promotion and disease prevention. JAMA. 2009;301:2252–9. 10.1001/jama.2009.754

Source: PubMed

Sponsors and Collaborators

Medical Conditions

Drug Interventions

3
Subscribe