Central nervous system control of gastrointestinal motility and secretion and modulation of gastrointestinal functions

Kirsteen N Browning, R Alberto Travagli, Kirsteen N Browning, R Alberto Travagli

Abstract

Although the gastrointestinal (GI) tract possesses intrinsic neural plexuses that allow a significant degree of autonomy over GI functions, the central nervous system (CNS) provides extrinsic neural inputs that regulate, modulate, and control these functions. While the intestines are capable of functioning in the absence of extrinsic inputs, the stomach and esophagus are much more dependent upon extrinsic neural inputs, particularly from parasympathetic and sympathetic pathways. The sympathetic nervous system exerts a predominantly inhibitory effect upon GI muscle and provides a tonic inhibitory influence over mucosal secretion while, at the same time, regulates GI blood flow via neurally mediated vasoconstriction. The parasympathetic nervous system, in contrast, exerts both excitatory and inhibitory control over gastric and intestinal tone and motility. Although GI functions are controlled by the autonomic nervous system and occur, by and large, independently of conscious perception, it is clear that the higher CNS centers influence homeostatic control as well as cognitive and behavioral functions. This review will describe the basic neural circuitry of extrinsic inputs to the GI tract as well as the major CNS nuclei that innervate and modulate the activity of these pathways. The role of CNS-centered reflexes in the regulation of GI functions will be discussed as will modulation of these reflexes under both physiological and pathophysiological conditions. Finally, future directions within the field will be discussed in terms of important questions that remain to be resolved and advances in technology that may help provide these answers.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Schematic representation of neuroanatomical connections between the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and central nuclei involved in the regulation of gastrointestinal functions. Note that the location of nuclei is not intended to be anatomically accurate. AP—area postrema; DMV—dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus; NTS—nucleus of the tractus solitarius; PB Complex—parabrachial complex (i.e., parabrachial nucleus + Kölliker-Fuse nucleus); PAG—periaqueductal gray; CeA—central nucleus of the amygdala; Vestibular N—vestibular nucleus; Trigeminal N—trigeminal nucleus; Raphe N—raphe nuclei.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Schematic representation of the neuroanatomical connections between midbrain and forebrain structures involved in the regulation of gastrointestinal (GI) functions. Note that the location of nuclei is not intended to be anatomically accurate. CeA—central nucleus of the amygdala; BNST—bed nucleus of the stria terminals; PAG—periaqueductal gray; LC—locus coeruleus; Barrington’s N—Barrington’s nucleus; PB complex—parabrachial complex (i.e., parabrachial nucleus + Kölliker-Fuse nucleus).

References

    1. Abbott CR, Monteiro M, Small CJ, Sajedi A, Smith KL, Parkinson JR, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR. The inhibitory effects of peripheral administration of peptide YY(3–36) and glucagon-like peptide-1 on food intake are attenuated by ablation of the vagal-brainstem-hypothalamic pathway. Brain Res. 2005;1044:127–131.
    1. Adachi A, Kobashi M, Funahashi M. Glucose-responsive neurons in the brainstem. Obes Res. 1995;3(Suppl 5):735S–740S.
    1. Adachi A, Shimizu N, Oomura Y, Kobashi M. Convergence of hepatoportal glucose-sensitive afferent signals to glucose-sensitive units within the nucleus of the solitary tract. Neurosci Lett. 1984;46:215–218.
    1. Ader JP, Postema F, Korf J. Contribution of the locus coeruleus to the adrenergic innervation of the rat spinal cord: A biochemical study. J Neural Transm. 1979;44:159–173.
    1. Aimone LD, Jones SL, Gebhart GF. Stimulation-produced descending inhibition from the periaqueductal gray and nucleus raphe magnus in the rat: Mediation by spinal monoamines but not opioids. Pain. 1987;31:123–136.
    1. Alberi S, Dreifuss JJ, Raggenbass M. The oxytocin-induced inward current in vagal neurons of the rat is mediated by G protein activation but not by an increase in the intracellular calcium concentration. Eur J Neurosci. 1998;9:2605–2612.
    1. Albert AP, Spyer KM, Brooks PA. The effect of 5HT and selective 5HT receptor agonists and antagonists on rat dorsal vagal preganglionic neurones in vitro. Br J Pharmacol. 1996;119:519–526.
    1. Alden M, Besson JM, Bernard JF. Organization of the efferent projections from the pontine parabrachial area to the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and neighboring regions: A PHA-L study in the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1994;341:289–314.
    1. Allen LS, Gorski RA. Sex difference in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis of the human brain. J Comp Neurol. 1990;302:697–706.
    1. Altschuler SM, Bao X, Bieger D, Hopkins DA, Miselis RR. Viscerotopic representation of the upper alimentary tract in the rat: Sensory Ganglia and nuclei of the solitary and spinal trigeminal tracts. J Comp Neurol. 1989;283:248–268.
    1. Altschuler SM, Escardo J, Lynn RB, Miselis RR. The Central Organization of the vagus nerve innervating the colon of the rat. Gastroenterol. 1993;104:502–509.
    1. Altschuler SM, Ferenci DA, Lynn RB, Miselis RR. Representation of the cecum in the lateral dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve and commissural subnucleus of the nucleus tractus solitarii in rat. J Comp Neurol. 1991;304:261–274.
    1. Alywin ML, Horowitz JM, Bonham AC. NMDA receptors contribute to primary visceral afferent transmission in the nucleus of the solitary tract. J Neurophysiol. 1997;77:2539–2548.
    1. Andresen MC, Kunze DL. Nucleus tractus solitarius–gateway to neural circulatory control. Annu Rev Physiol. 1994;56:93–116.
    1. Andresen MC, Yang M. Non-NMDA receptors mediate sensory afferent synaptic transmission in medial nucleus tractus solitarius. Am J Physiol. 1990;259:H1307–H1311.
    1. Arnsten AF, Goldman-Rakic PS. Selective prefrontal cortical projections to the region of the locus coeruleus and raphe nuclei in the rhesus monkey. Brain Res. 1984;306:9–18.
    1. Aston-Jones G, Cohen JD. Adaptive gain and the role of the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system in optimal performance. J Comp Neurol. 2005;493:99–110.
    1. Aylwin ML, Horowitz JM, Bonham AC. Non-NMDA and NMDA receptors in the synaptic pathway between area postrema and nucleus tractus solitarius. Am J Physiol. 1998;275:H1236–H1246.
    1. Babic T, Browning KN. The role of vagal neurocircuits in the regulation of nausea and vomiting. Eur J Pharmacol. 2013;722:38–37.
    1. Babic T, Browning KN, Kawaguchi Y, Tang X, Travagli RA. Pancreatic insulin and exocrine secretion are under the modulatory control of distinct subpopulations of vagal motoneurones in the rat. J Physiol. 2012;590:3611–3622.
    1. Babic T, Browning KN, Kawaguchi Y, Tang X, Travagli RA. Pancreatic insulin and exocrine secretion are under the modulatory control of distinct subpopulations of vagal motoneurones in the rat. J Physiol. 2012;590:3611–3622.
    1. Babic T, Browning KN, Travagli RA. Differential organization of excitatory and inhibitory synapses within the rat dorsal vagal complex. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2011;300:G21–G32.
    1. Babic T, Troy AE, Fortna SR, Browning KN. Glucose-dependent trafficking of 5-HT(3) receptors in rat gastrointestinal vagal afferent neurons. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2012;24:e476–e488.
    1. Babygirija R, Bulbul M, Cerjak D, Ludwig K, Takahashi T. Sustained acceleration of colonic transit following chronic homotypic stress in oxytocin knockout mice. Neurosci Lett. 2011;495:77–81.
    1. Babygirija R, Bulbul M, Yoshimoto S, Ludwig K, Takahashi T. Central and peripheral release of oxytocin following chronic homotypic stress in rats. Auton Neurosci. 2012;167:56–60.
    1. Babygirija R, Zheng J, Ludwig K, Takahashi T. Central oxytocin is involved in restoring impaired gastric motility following chronic repeated stress in mice. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2010;298:R157–R165.
    1. Balaban CD. Projections from the parabrachial nucleus to the vestibular nuclei: Potential substrates for autonomic and limbic influences on vestibular responses. Brain Res. 2004;996:126–137.
    1. Bale TL, Vale WW. CRF and CRF receptors: Role in stress responsivity and other behaviors. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2004;44:525–557.
    1. Balfour RH, Hansen AM, Trapp S. Neuronal responses to transient hypoglycaemia in the dorsal vagal complex of the rat brainstem. J Physiol. 2006;570:469–484.
    1. Balfour RH, Trapp S. Ionic currents underlying the response of rat dorsal vagal neurones to hypoglycaemia and chemical anoxia. J Physiol. 2007;579:691–702.
    1. Baptista V, Browning KN, Travagli RA. Effects of cholecystokinin-8s in the nucleus tractus solitarius of vagally deafferented rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2007;292:R1092–R100.
    1. Baptista V, Zheng ZL, Coleman FH, Rogers RC, Travagli RA. Cholecystokinin octapeptide increases spontaneous glutamatergic synaptic transmission to neurons of the nucleus tractus solitarius centralis. J Neurophysiol. 2005;94:2763–2771.
    1. Baraboi ED, Michel C, Smith P, Thibaudeau K, Ferguson AV, Richard D. Effects of albumin-conjugated PYY on food intake: The respective roles of the circumventricular organs and vagus nerve. Eur J Neurosci. 2010;32:826–839.
    1. Baraboi ED, St-Pierre DH, Shooner J, Timofeeva E, Richard D. Brain activation following peripheral administration of the GLP-1 receptor agonist exendin-4. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2011;301:R1011–R1024.
    1. Barquist E, Bonaz B, Martinez V, Rivier J, Zinner MJ, Tache Y. Neuronal pathways involved in abdominal surgery-induced gastric ileus in rats. Am J Physiol. 1996;270:R888–R894.
    1. Barraco R, el-Ridi M, Ergene E, Parizon M, Bradley D. An atlas of the rat subpostremal nucleus tractus solitarius. Brain Res Bull. 1992;29:703–765.
    1. Barrington FJF. The effect of lesions of the hind- and mid-brain on mictgurition in the cat. Q J Exp Physiol. 1925;15:81–102.
    1. Bayliss WM, Starling EH. The movements and the innervation of the large intestine. J Physiol. 1900;26:107–118.
    1. Bayliss WM, Starling EH. The movements and innervation of the small intestine. J Physiol. 1901;26:125–138.
    1. Beaumont W. Experiments and observations on the gastric juice and the physiology of digestion. Neill & Co.; Old Fishmarket, Edinburgh: 1838. pp. 1–319. Maclachlan & Stewart, printed by.
    1. Beglinger C, Degen L. Role of thyrotrophin releasing hormone and corticotrophin releasing factor in stress related alterations of gastrointestinal motor function. Gut. 2002;51(Suppl 1):I45–I49.
    1. Behbehani MM. Functional characteristics of the midbrain periaqueductal gray. Prog Neurobiol. 1995;46:575–605.
    1. Bennett A, Friedmann CA, Vane JR. Release of prostaglandin E-1 from the rat stomach. Nature. 1967;216:873–876.
    1. Bercik P, Park AJ, Sinclair D, Khoshdel A, Lu J, Huang X, Deng Y, Blennerhassett PA, Fahnestock M, Moine D, Berger B, Huizinga JD, Kunze W, McLean PG, Bergonzelli GE, Collins SM, Verdu EF. The anxiolytic effect of Bifidobacterium longum NCC3001 involves vagal pathways for gut-brain communication. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2011;23:1132–1139.
    1. Berin MC. Mucosal antibodies in the regulation of tolerance and allergy to foods. Semin Immunopathol. 2012;34:633–642.
    1. Berk ML. Projections of the lateral hypothalamus and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis to the dorsal vagal complex in the pigeon. J Comp Neurol. 1987;260:140–156.
    1. Bernard JF, Alden M, Besson JM. The organization of the efferent projections from the pontine parabrachial area to the amygdaloid complex: A Phaseolus vulgaris leucoagglutinin (PHA-L) study in the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1993;329:201–229.
    1. Berthoud HR, Jedrzejewska A, Powley TL. Simultaneous labeling of vagal innervation of the gut and afferent projections from the visceral forebrain with dil injected into the dorsal vagal complex in the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1990;301:65–79.
    1. Berthoud H-R, Carlson NR, Powley TL. Topography of efferent vagal innervation of the rat gastrointestinal tract. Am J Physiol. 1991;260:R200–R207.
    1. Bertolino M, Vicini S, Gillis RA, Travagli RA. Presynaptic a2-adrenoceptors inhibit excitatory synaptic transmission in rat brain stem. Am J Physiol. 1997;272:G654–G661.
    1. Bessant AR, Robertson-Rintoul J. Origin of the parasympathetic preganglionic fibers to the distal colon of the rabbit as demonstrated by the horseradish peroxidase method. Neurosci Lett. 1986;63:17–22.
    1. Beyak MJ, Grundy D. Vagal afferents innervating the gastrointestinal tract. In: Undem BJ, Weinreich D, editors. Advances in Vagal Afferent Neurobiology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2005.
    1. Bhutta HY, Deelman TE, Ashley SW, Rhoads DB, Tavakkoli A. Disrupted circadian rhythmicity of the intestinal glucose transporter SGLT1 in Zucker diabetic fatty rats. Dig Dis Sci. 2013;58:1537–1545.
    1. Bihler I, Freund N. Sugar transport in the small intestine of obese hyperglycemic, fed and fasted mice. Diabetologia. 1975;11:387–393.
    1. Bingham B, Myung C, Innala L, Gray M, Anonuevo A, Viau V. Androgen receptors in the posterior bed nucleus of the stria terminalis increase neuropeptide expression and the stress-induced activation of the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2011;36:1433–1443.
    1. Blake CB, Smith BN. Insulin reduces excitation in gastric-related neurons of the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2012;303:R807–R814.
    1. Blevins JE, Baskin DG. Hypothalamic-brainstem circuits controlling eating. Forum Nutr. 2010;63:133–140.
    1. Blevins JE, Chelikani PK, Haver AC, Reidelberger RD. PYY(3–36) induces Fos in the arcuate nucleus and in both catecholaminergic and non-catecholaminergic neurons in the nucleus tractus solitarius of rats. Peptides. 2008;29:112–119.
    1. Boeckxstaens GE, De Jonge WJ. Neuroimmune mechanisms in postoperative ileus. Gut. 2009;58:1300–1311.
    1. Bonaz B, Plourde V, Tache Y. Abdominal surgery induces Fos immunoreactivity in the rat brain. J Comp Neurol. 1994;349:212–222.
    1. Bonaz BL, Bernstein CN. Brain-gut interactions in inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology. 2013;144:36–49.
    1. Bonham AC, Chen C-Y. Synaptic transmission in the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) In: Undem BJ, Weinreich D, editors. Advances in Vagal Afferent Neurobiology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2005.
    1. Borison HL, Brizzee KR. Morphology of emetic chemoreceptor trigger zone in cat medulla oblongata. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1951;77:38–42.
    1. Borison HL, Wang SC. Functional localization of central coordinating mechanism for emesis in cat. J Neurophysiol. 1949;12:305–313.
    1. Bornstein JC, Costa M, Furness JB. Intrinsic and extrinsic inhibitory synaptic inputs to submucous neurones of the guinea-pig small intestine. J Physiol. 1988;398:371–390.
    1. Borovikova LV, Ivanova S, Zhang M, Yang H, Botchkina GI, Watkins LR, Wang H, Abumrad N, Eaton JW, Tracey KJ. Vagus nerve stimulation attenuates the systemic inflammatory response to endotoxin. Nature. 2000;405:458–462.
    1. Bratton BO, Martelli D, McKinley MJ, Trevaks D, Anderson CR, McAllen RM. Neural regulation of inflammation: No neural connection from the vagus to splenic sympathetic neurons. Exp Physiol. 2012;97:1180–1185.
    1. Bravo JA, Forsythe P, Chew MV, Escaravage E, Savignac HM, Dinan TG, Bienenstock J, Cryan JF. Ingestion of Lactobacillus strain regulates emotional behavior and central GABA receptor expression in a mouse via the vagus nerve. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011;108:16050–16055.
    1. Broussard DL, Altschuler SM. Brainstem viscerotopic organization of afferents and efferents involved in the control of swallowing. Am J Med. 2000;108:79S–86S.
    1. Browning KN, Babic T, Holmes GM, Swartz EM, Travagli RA. A critical re-evaluation of the specificity of action of perivagal capsaicin. J Physiol. 2013;591:1563–1580.
    1. Browning KN, Fortna SR, Hajnal A. Roux-en-Y gastric bypass reverses the effects of diet-induced obesity to inhibit the responsiveness of central vagal motoneurones. J Physiol. 2013;591:2357–2372.
    1. Browning KN, Kalyuzhny AE, Travagli RA. Opioid peptides inhibit excitatory but not inhibitory synaptic transmission in the rat dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. J Neurosci. 2002;22:2998–3004.
    1. Browning KN, Kalyuzhny AE, Travagli RA. Mu-opioid receptor trafficking on inhibitory synapses in the rat brainstem. J Neurosci. 2004;24:7344–7352.
    1. Browning KN, Renehan WE, Travagli RA. Electrophysiological and morphological heterogeneity of rat dorsal vagal neurones which project to specific areas of the gastrointestinal tract. J Physiol. 1999;517:521–532.
    1. Browning KN, Travagli RA. Characterisation of the in vitro effects of 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) on identified neurones of the rat dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (DMV) Br J Pharmacol. 1999;128:1307–1315.
    1. Browning KN, Travagli RA. The peptide TRH uncovers the presence of presynaptic 5-HT1A receptors via activation of a second messenger pathway in the rat dorsal vagal complex. J Physiol. 2001;531:425–435.
    1. Browning KN, Travagli RA. Neuropeptide Y and peptide YY inhibit excitatory synaptic transmission in the rat dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. J Physiol. 2003;549:775–785.
    1. Browning KN, Travagli RA. Short-term receptor trafficking in the dorsal vagal complex: An overview. Auton Neurosci. 2006;126–127:2–8.
    1. Browning KN, Travagli RA. Functional organization of presynaptic metabotropic glutamate receptors in vagal brainstem circuits. J Neurosci. 2007;27:8979–8988.
    1. Browning KN, Travagli RA. Modulation of inhibitory neurotransmission in brainstem vagal circuits by NPY and PYY is controlled by cAMP levels. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2009;21:1309–1318.
    1. Browning KN, Travagli RA. Plasticity of vagal brainstem circuits in the control of gastric function. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2010;22:1154–1163.
    1. Browning KN, Travagli RA. Plasticity of vagal brainstem circuits in the control of gastrointestinal function. Auton Neurosci. 2011;161:6–13.
    1. Browning KN, Wan S, Baptista V, Travagli RA. Vanilloid, purinergic, and CCK receptors activate glutamate release on single neurons of the nucleus tractus solitarius centralis. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2011;301:R394–R401.
    1. Browning KN, Zheng Z, Gettys TW, Travagli RA. Vagal afferent control of opioidergic effects in rat brainstem circuits. J Physiol. 2006;575:761–776.
    1. Buijs RM, Chun SJ, Nijima A, Romijn HJ, Nagai K. Parasympathetic and sympathetic control of the pancreas: A role for the suprachiasmatic nucleus and other hypothalamic centers that are involved in the regulation of food intake. J Comp Neurol. 2001;431:405–423.
    1. Bulbul M, Babygirija R, Ludwig K, Takahashi T. Central oxytocin attenuates augmented gastric postprandial motility induced by restraint stress in rats. Neurosci Lett. 2010;479:302–306.
    1. Burstein R, Cliffer KD, Giesler GJ., Jr Direct somatosensory projections from the spinal cord to the hypothalamus and telencephalon. J Neurosci. 1987;7:4159–4164.
    1. Burstein R, Giesler GJ., Jr Retrograde labeling of neurons in spinal cord that project directly to nucleus accumbens or the septal nuclei in the rat. Brain Res. 1989;497:149–154.
    1. Cabral A, Valdivia S, Reynaldo M, Cyr NE, Nillni EA, Perello M. Short-term cold exposure activates TRH neurons exclusively in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus and raphe pallidus. Neurosci Lett. 2012;518:86–91.
    1. Cai QQ, Zheng LF, Fan RF, Lian H, Zhou L, Song HY, Tang YY, Feng XY, Guo ZK, Wang ZY, Zhu JX. Distribution of dopamine receptors D1- and D2-immunoreactive neurons in the dorsal motor nucleus of vagus in rats. Auton Neurosci. 2013;176:48–53.
    1. Callahan LB, Tschetter KE, Ronan PJ. Inhibition of corticotropin releasing factor expression in the central nucleus of the amygdala attenuates stress-induced behavioral and endocrine responses. Front Neurosci. 2013;7:195.
    1. Camilleri M, Malagelada JR, Kao PC, Zinsmeister AR. Gastric and autonomic responses to stress in functional dyspepsia. Dig Dis Sci. 1986;31:1169–1177.
    1. Camilleri M, Saslow SB, Bharucha AE. Gastrointestinal sensation. Mechanisms and relation to functional gastrointestinal disorders. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 1996;25:247–258.
    1. Cannon WB, Lieb CW. The receptive relaxation of the stomach. Am J Physiol. 1911;29:267–273.
    1. Cano G, Card JP, Rinaman L, Sved AF. Connections of Barrington’s nucleus to the sympathetic nervous system in rats. J Auton Nerv Syst. 2000;79:117–128.
    1. Canteras NS, Simerly RB, Swanson LW. Organization of projections from the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus: A Phaseolus vulgaris-leucoagglutinin study in the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1994;348:41–79.
    1. Carstens E, Yokota T, Zimmermann M. Inhibition of spinal neuronal responses to noxious skin heating by stimulation of mesencephalic periaqueductal gray in the cat. J Neurophysiol. 1979;42:558–568.
    1. Cassell MD, Gray TS. The amygdala directly innervates adrenergic (C1) neurons in the ventrolateral medulla in the rat. Neurosci Lett. 1989;97:163–168.
    1. Cechetto DF, Standaert DG, Saper CB. Spinal and trigeminal dorsal horn projections to the parabrachial nucleus in the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1985;240:153–160.
    1. Chaikomin R, Rayner CK, Jones KL, Horowitz M. Upper gastrointestinal function and glycemic control in diabetes mellitus. World J Gastroenterol. 2006;12:5611–5621.
    1. Chandrasekharan B, Srinivasan S. Diabetes and the enteric nervous system. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2007;19:951–960.
    1. Chen CY, Bonham AC. Glutamate suppresses GABA release via presynaptic metabotropic glutamate receptors at baroreceptor neurones in rats. J Physiol. 2005;562:535–551.
    1. Chen CY, Ling Eh EH, Horowitz JM, Bonham AC. Synaptic transmission in nucleus tractus solitarius is depressed by Group II and III but not Group I presynaptic metabotropic glutamate receptors in rats. J Physiol. 2002;538:773–786.
    1. Chen T, Dong YX, Li YQ. Fos expression in serotonergic neurons in the rat brainstem following noxious stimuli: An immunohistochemical double-labelling study. J Anat. 2003;203:579–588.
    1. Choi DC, Furay AR, Evanson NK, Ostrander MM, Ulrich-Lai YM, Herman JP. Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis subregions differentially regulate hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity: Implications for the integration of limbic inputs. J Neurosci. 2007;27:2025–2034.
    1. Chronwall BM. Anatomy and physiology of the neuroendocrine arcuate nucleus. Peptides. 1985;6(Suppl 2):1–11.
    1. Coceani F, Pace-Asciak C, Volta F, Wolfe LS. Effect of nerve stimulation on prostaglandin formation and release from the rat stomach. Am J Physiol. 1967;213:1056–1064.
    1. Collins SM, Surette M, Bercik P. The interplay between the intestinal microbiota and the brain. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2012;10:735–742.
    1. Commissiong JW. Evidence that the noradrenergic coerulospinal projection decussates at the spinal level. Brain Res. 1981;212:145–151.
    1. Commissiong JW, Hellstrom SO, Neff NH. A new projection from locus coeruleus to the spinal ventral columns: Histochemical and biochemical evidence. Brain Res. 1978;148:207–213.
    1. Cottrell GT, Ferguson AV. Sensory circumventricular organs: Central roles in integrated autonomic regulation. Regul Pept. 2004;117:11–23.
    1. Covasa M, Grahn J, Ritter RC. High fat maintenance diet attenuates hindbrain neuronal response to CCK. Regul Pept. 2000a;86:83–88.
    1. Covasa M, Grahn J, Ritter RC. Reduced hindbrain and enteric neuronal response to intestinal oleate in rats maintained on high-fat diet. Auton Neurosci. 2000b;84:8–18.
    1. Cragg BG, Evans DH. Some reflexes mediated by the afferent fibers of the abdominal vagus in the rabbit and cat. Exp Neurol. 1960;2:1–12.
    1. Crestani CC, Alves FH, Gomes FV, Resstel LB, Correa FM, Herman JP. Mechanisms in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis involved in control of autonomic and neuroendocrine functions: A review. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2013;11:141–159.
    1. Cruz MT, Murphy EC, Sahibzada N, Verbalis JG, Gillis RA. A reevaluation of the effects of stimulation of the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus on gastric motility in the rat. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2007;292:R291–R307.
    1. Cryan JF, Dinan TG. Mind-altering microorganisms: The impact of the gut microbiota on brain and behaviour. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2012;13:701–712.
    1. Cryan JF, O’Mahony SM. The microbiome-gut-brain axis: From bowel to behavior. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2011;23:187–192.
    1. Cunningham ET, Jr, Sawchenko PE. Anatomical specificity of noradrenergic inputs to the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the rat hypothalamus. J Comp Neurol. 1988;274:60–76.
    1. Curtis AL, Leiser SC, Snyder K, Valentino RJ. Predator stress engages corticotropin-releasing factor and opioid systems to alter the operating mode of locus coeruleus norepinephrine neurons. Neuropharmacology. 2012;62:1737–1745.
    1. Curtis AL, Pavcovich LA, Grigoriadis DE, Valentino RJ. Previous stress alters corticotropin-releasing factor neurotransmission in the locus coeruleus. Neuroscience. 1995;65:541–550.
    1. Czura CJ, Friedman SG, Tracey KJ. Neural inhibition of inflammation: The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway. J Endotoxin Res. 2003;9:409–413.
    1. Czura CJ, Tracey KJ. Autonomic neural regulation of immunity. J Intern Med. 2005;257:156–166.
    1. Dallaporta M, Himmi T, Perrin J, Orsini JC. Solitary tract nucleus sensitivity to moderate changes in glucose level. Neuroreport. 1999;10:2657–2660.
    1. Dallaporta M, Perrin J, Orsini J-C. Involvement of adenosine triphosphate-sensitive K+ channels in glucose-sensing in the rat solitary tract nucleus. Neurosci Lett. 2000;278:77–80.
    1. Daly DM, Park SJ, Valinsky WC, Beyak MJ. Impaired intestinal afferent nerve satiety signalling and vagal afferent excitability in diet induced obesity in the mouse. J Physiol. 2011;589:2857–2870.
    1. Darmani NA, Ray AP. Evidence for a re-evaluation of the neurochemical and anatomical bases of chemotherapy-induced vomiting. Chem Rev. 2009;109:3158–3199.
    1. Davis SF, Williams KW, Xu W, Glatzer NR, Smith BN. Selective enhancement of synaptic inhibition by hypocretin (orexin) in rat vagal motor neurons: Implications for autonomic regulation. J Neurosci. 2003;23:3844–3854.
    1. De Groat WC, Nadelhaft I, Milne RJ, Booth AM, Morgan C, Thor K. Organization of the sacral parasympathetic reflex pathways to the urinary bladder and large intestine. J Auton Nerv Syst. 1981;3:135–160.
    1. de Haan JJ, Hadfoune M, Lubbers T, Hodin C, Lenaerts K, Ito A, Verbaeys I, Skynner MJ, Cailotto C, van d V, De Jonge WJ, Greve JW, Buurman WA. Lipid-rich enteral nutrition regulates mucosal mast cell activation via the vagal anti-inflammatory reflex. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2013;305:G383–G391.
    1. de Lartigue G, de La Serre CB, Raybould HE. Vagal afferent neurons in high fat diet-induced obesity; intestinal microflora, gut inflammation and cholecystokinin. Physiol Behav. 2011;105:100–105.
    1. De Ponti F, Azpiroz F, Malagelada J-R. Reflex gastric relaxation in response to distention of the duodenum. Am J Physiol. 1987;252:G595–G601.
    1. Dedovic K, Duchesne A, Andrews J, Engert V, Pruessner JC. The brain and the stress axis: The neural correlates of cortisol regulation in response to stress. Neuroimage. 2009;47:864–871.
    1. DeFalco J, Tomishima M, Liu H, Zhao C, Cai X, Marth JD, Enquist L, Friedman JM. Virus-assisted mapping of neural inputs to a feeding center in the hypothalamus. Science. 2001;291:2608–2613.
    1. Deloose E, Janssen P, Depoortere I, Tack J. The migrating motor complex: Control mechanisms and its role in health and disease. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012;9:271–285.
    1. Demedts I, Masaoka T, Kindt S, De HG, Geboes K, Farre R, Vanden Berghe P, Tack J. Gastrointestinal motility changes and myenteric plexus alterations in spontaneously diabetic biobreeding rats. J Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2013;19:161–170.
    1. Derbenev AV, Monroe MJ, Glatzer NR, Smith BN. Vanilloid-mediated heterosynaptic facilitation of inhibitory synaptic input to neurons of the rat dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. J Neurosci. 2006;26:9666–9672.
    1. Derbenev AV, Stuart TC, Smith BN. Cannabinoids suppress synaptic input to neurones of the rat dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve. J Physiol. 2004;559:923–938.
    1. Ding YQ, Zheng HX, Gong LW, Lu Y, Zhao H, Qin BZ. Direct projections from the lumbosacral spinal cord to Barrington’s nucleus in the rat: A special reference to micturition reflex. J Comp Neurol. 1997;389:149–160.
    1. Dockray GJ. The versatility of the vagus. Physiol Behav. 2009;97:531–536.
    1. Dong YX, Han ZA, Xiong KH, Rao ZR. Fos expression in serotonergic midbrain neurons projecting to the paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus after noxious stimulation of the stomach: A triple labeling study in the rat. Neurosci Res. 1997;27:155–160.
    1. Donovan MJ, Paulino G, Raybould HE. CCK(1) receptor is essential for normal meal patterning in mice fed high fat diet. Physiol Behav. 2007;92:969–974.
    1. Drucker DJ. Minireview: The glucagon-like peptides. Endocrinology. 2001;142:521–527.
    1. Drucker DJ. The biology of incretin hormones. Cell Metab. 2006;3:153–165.
    1. Duca FA, Sakar Y, Covasa M. Combination of obesity and high-fat feeding diminishes sensitivity to GLP-1R agonist exendin-4. Diabetes. 2013;62:2410–2415.
    1. Dumont Y, Moyse E, Fournier A, Quirion R. Distribution of peripherally injected peptide YY ([125I] PYY (3–36)) and pancreatic polypeptide ([125I] hPP) in the CNS: Enrichment in the area postrema. J Mol Neurosci. 2007;33:294–304.
    1. Dunn-Meynell AA, Rawson NE, Levin BE. Distribution and phenotype of neurons containing the ATP-sensitive K+ channel in rat brain. Brain Res. 1998;814:41–54.
    1. Dunn-Meynell AA, Routh VH, Kang L, Gaspers L, Levin BE. Glucokinase is the likely mediator of glucosensing in both glucose-excited and glucose-inhibited central neurons. Diabetes. 2002;51:2056–2065.
    1. Dyer J, Wood IS, Palejwala A, Ellis A, Shirazi-Beechey SP. Expression of monosaccharide transporters in intestine of diabetic humans. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2002;282:G241–G248.
    1. Ebert E. Gastrointestinal involvement in spinal cord injury: A clinical perspective. J Gastrointestin Liver Dis. 2012;21:75–82.
    1. Eisner F, Jacob P, Frick JS, Feilitzsch M, Geisel J, Mueller MH, Kuper MA, Raybould HE, Konigsrainer I, Glatzle J. Immunonutrition with long-chain fatty acids prevents activation of macrophages in the gut wall. J Gastrointest Surg. 2011;15:853–859.
    1. Elam M, Thoren P, Svensson TH. Locus coeruleus neurons and sympathetic nerves: Activation by visceral afferents. Brain Res. 1986;375:117–125.
    1. Ennis M, Behbehani M, Shipley MT, Van Bockstaele EJ, Aston-Jones G. Projections from the periaqueductal gray to the rostromedial pericoerulear region and nucleus locus coeruleus: Anatomic and physiologic studies. J Comp Neurol. 1991;306:480–494.
    1. Farre R, Tack J. Food and symptom generation in functional gastrointestinal disorders: Physiological aspects. Am J Gastroenterol. 2013;108:698–706.
    1. Fasth S, Hulten L, Nordgren S. Evidence for a dual pelvic nerve influence on large bowel motility in the cat. J Physiol. 1980;298:159–169.
    1. Felten DL, Felten SY, Carlson SL, Olschowka JA, Livnat S. Noradrenergic and peptidergic innervation of lymphoid tissue. J Immunol. 1985;135:755s–765s.
    1. Fennegan FM, Puiggari MJ. Hypothalamic and amygdaloid influence on gastric motility in dogs. J Neurosurg. 1966;24:497–504.
    1. Ferreira M, Jr, Browning KN, Sahibzada N, Verbalis JG, Gillis RA, Travagli RA. Glucose effects on gastric motility and tone evoked from the rat dorsal vagal complex. J Physiol. 2001;536:141–152.
    1. Field BC, Chaudhri OB, Bloom SR. Bowels control brain: Gut hormones and obesity. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2010;6:444–453.
    1. Fisk GD, Wyss JM. Descending projections of infralimbic cortex that mediate stimulation-evoked changes in arterial pressure. Brain Res. 2000;859:83–95.
    1. Flanagan LM, Olson BR, Sved AF, Verbalis JG, Stricker EM. Gastric motility in conscious rats given oxytocin and an oxytocin antagonist centrally. Brain Res. 1992;578:256–260.
    1. Fleetwood-Walker SM, Coote JH. The contribution of brain stem catecholamine cell groups to the innervation of the sympathetic lateral cell column. Brain Res. 1981;205:141–155.
    1. Floyd NS, Price JL, Ferry AT, Keay KA, Bandler R. Orbitomedial prefrontal cortical projections to distinct longitudinal columns of the periaqueductal gray in the rat. J Comp Neurol. 2000;422:556–578.
    1. Fogel R, Zhang X, Renehan WE. Relationships between the morphology and function of gastric and intestinal distention-sensitive neurons in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. J Comp Neurol. 1996;364:78–91.
    1. Foote SL, Bloom FE, Aston-Jones G. Nucleus locus ceruleus: New evidence of anatomical and physiological specificity. Physiol Rev. 1983;63:844–914.
    1. Forray MI, Gysling K. Role of noradrenergic projections to the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis in the regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 2004;47:145–160.
    1. Forsythe P, Sudo N, Dinan T, Taylor VH, Bienenstock J. Mood and gut feelings. Brain Behav Immun. 2010;24:9–16.
    1. Fox EA, Powley TL. Longitudinal columnar organization within the dorsal motor nucleus represents separate branches of the abdominal vagus. Brain Res. 1985;341:269–282.
    1. Fox EA, Powley TL. Morphology of identified preganglionic neurons in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. J Comp Neurol. 1992;322:79–98.
    1. Freeman SL, Bohan D, Darcel N, Raybould HE. Luminal glucose sensing in the rat intestine has characteristics of a sodium-glucose cotransporter. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2006;291:G439–G445.
    1. Fry M, Ferguson AV. The sensory circumventricular organs: Brain targets for circulating signals controlling ingestive behavior. Physiol Behav. 2007;91:413–423.
    1. Fulwiler CE, Saper CB. Subnuclear organization of the efferent connections of the parabrachial nucleus in the rat. Brain Res. 1984;319:229–259.
    1. Furuse M, Matsumoto M, Mori R, Sugahara K, Kano K, Hasegawa S. Influence of fasting and neuropeptide Y on the suppressive food intake induced by intracerebroventricular injection of glucagon-like peptide-1 in the neonatal chick. Brain Res. 1997;764:289–292.
    1. Gaisano GG, Park SJ, Daly DM, Beyak MJ. Glucagon-like peptide-1 inhibits voltage-gated potassium currents in mouse nodose ganglion neurons. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2010;22:470–9. e111.
    1. Gao H, Smith BN. Tonic GABAA receptor-mediated inhibition in the rat dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. J Neurophysiol. 2010;103:904–914.
    1. Garrick T, Prince M, Yang Y, Ohning G, Tache Y. Raphe pallidus stimulation increases gastric contractility via TRH projections to the dorsal vagal complex in rats. Brain Res. 1994;636:343–347.
    1. Garrick T, Veiseh A, Sierra A, Weiner H, Tache Y. Corticotropin-releasing factor acts centrally to suppress stimulated gastric contractility in the rat. Regul Pept. 1988;21:173–181.
    1. Garry RC. The nervous control of the caudal region of the large bowel in the cat. J Physiol. 1933;77:422–431.
    1. Gebhart GF, Sandkuhler J, Thalhammer JG, Zimmermann M. Quantitative comparison of inhibition in spinal cord of nociceptive information by stimulation in periaqueductal gray or nucleus raphe magnus of the cat. J Neurophysiol. 1983;50:1433–1445.
    1. Geeraerts B, Vandenberghe J, Van Oudenhove L, Gregory LJ, Aziz Q, Dupont P, Demyttenaere K, Janssens J, Tack J. Influence of experimentally induced anxiety on gastric sensorimotor function in humans. Gastroenterology. 2005;129:1437–1444.
    1. Ghia JE, Blennerhassett P, Collins SM. Vagus nerve integrity and experimental colitis. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2007;293:G560–G567.
    1. Ghia JE, Blennerhassett P, El-Sharkawy RT, Collins SM. The protective effect of the vagus nerve in a murine model of chronic relapsing colitis. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2007;293:G711–G718.
    1. Ghia JE, Blennerhassett P, Kumar-Ondiveeran H, Verdu EF, Collins SM. The vagus nerve: A tonic inhibitory influence associated with inflammatory bowel disease in a murine model. Gastroenterology. 2006;131:1122–1130.
    1. Gieroba ZJ, Messenger JP, Blessing WW. Abdominal vagal stimulation excites bulbospinal barosensitive neurons in the rostral ventrolateral medulla. Neuroscience. 1995;65:355–364.
    1. Glatzer NR, Smith BN. Modulation of synaptic transmission in the rat nucleus of the solitary tract by endomorphin-1. J Neurophysiol. 2004;93:2530–2540.
    1. Glaum SR, Miller RJ. Metabotropic glutamate receptors mediate excitatory transmission in the nucleus of the solitary tract. J Neurosci. 1992;12:2251–2258.
    1. Glaum SR, Miller RJ. Activation of metabotropic glutamate receptors produces reciprocal regulation of ionotropic glutamate and GABA responses in the nucleus of the tractus solitarius of the rat. J Neurosci. 1993a;13:1636–1641.
    1. Glaum SR, Miller RJ. Metabotropic glutamate receptors depress afferent excitatory transmission in the rat nucleus tractus solitarii. J Neurophysiol. 1993b;70:2669–2672.
    1. Glaum SR, Miller RJ. Presynaptic metabotropic glutamate receptors modulate omega-conotoxin- GVIA-insensitive calcium channels in the rat medulla. Neuropharmacology. 1995;34:953–964.
    1. Glazer EJ, Basbaum AI. Leucine enkephalin: Localization in and axoplasmic transport by sacral parasympathetic preganglionic neurons. Science. 1980;208:1479–1481.
    1. Goehler LE, Gaykema RP, Opitz N, Reddaway R, Badr N, Lyte M. Activation in vagal afferents and central autonomic pathways: Early responses to intestinal infection with Campylobacter jejuni. Brain Behav Immun. 2005;19:334–344.
    1. Grabauskas G, Moises HC. Gastrointestinal-projecting neurones in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus exhibit direct and viscerotopically organized sensitivity to orexin. J Physiol. 2003;549:37–56.
    1. Grabauskas G, Song I, Zhou SY, Owyang C. Electrophysiological identifications of glucose-sensing neurons in the rat nodose ganglia. J Physiol. 2010;588:617–632.
    1. Grammatopoulos DK. Insights into mechanisms of corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor signal transduction. Br J Pharmacol. 2012;166:85–97.
    1. Granger DN, Richardson PD, Kvietys PR, Mortillaro NA. Intestinal blood flow. Gastroenterology. 1980;78:837–863.
    1. Gray TS, Magnuson DJ. Neuropeptide neuronal efferents from the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and central amygdaloid nucleus to the dorsal vagal complex in the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1987;262:365–374.
    1. Greenwood B, Tremblay L, Davison JS. Sympathetic control of motility, fluid transport, and transmural potential difference in the rabbit ileum. Am J Physiol. 1987;253:G726–G729.
    1. Greenwood-Van Meerveld B, Gibson M, Gunter W, Shepard J, Foreman R, Myers D. Stereotaxic delivery of corticosterone to the amygdala modulates colonic sensitivity in rats. Brain Res. 2001;893:135–142.
    1. Greenwood-Van Meerveld B, Johnson AC, Schulkin J, Myers DA. Long-term expression of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus in response to an acute colonic inflammation. Brain Res. 2006;1071:91–96.
    1. Grenham S, Clarke G, Cryan JF, Dinan TG. Brain-gut-microbe communication in health and disease. Front Physiol. 2011;2:94.
    1. Grzanna R, Molliver ME. The locus coeruleus in the rat: An immunohistochemical delineation. Neuroscience. 1980;5:21–40.
    1. Gue M, Junien JL, Bueno L. Conditioned emotional response in rats enhances colonic motility through the central release of corticotropin-releasing factor. Gastroenterology. 1991;100:964–970.
    1. Gulbransen BD, Bains JS, Sharkey KA. Enteric glia are targets of the sympathetic innervation of the myenteric plexus in the guinea pig distal colon. J Neurosci. 2010;30:6801–6809.
    1. Gulbransen BD, Sharkey KA. Purinergic neuron-to-glia signaling in the enteric nervous system. Gastroenterology. 2009;136:1349–1358.
    1. Gulbransen BD, Sharkey KA. Novel functional roles for enteric glia in the gastrointestinal tract. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012;9:625–632.
    1. Gunter WD, Shepard JD, Foreman RD, Myers DA, Greenwood-Van MB. Evidence for visceral hypersensitivity in high-anxiety rats. Physiol Behav. 2000;69:379–382.
    1. Guo J, Browning KN, Rogers RC, Travagli RA. Catecholaminergic neurons in rat dorsal motor nucleus of vagus project selectively to gastric corpus. Am J Physiol. 2001;280:G361–G367.
    1. Guyenet PG. The sympathetic control of blood pressure. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2006;7:335–346.
    1. Handa RJ, Weiser MJ. Gonadal steroid hormones and the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis. Front Neuroendocrinol. 2013;35:197–220.
    1. Hao S, Dulake M, Espero E, Sternini C, Raybould HE, Rinaman L. Central Fos expression and conditioned flavor avoidance in rats following intragastric administration of bitter taste receptor ligands. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2009;296:R528–R536.
    1. Hay M, Lindsley KA. Metabotropic glutamate receptor inhibition of visceral afferent potassium currents. Brain Res. 1995;698:169–174.
    1. Hay M, McKenzie H, Lindsley K, Dietz N, Bradley SR, Conn PJ, Hasser EM. Heterogeneity of metabotropic glutamate receptors in autonomic cell groups of the medulla oblongata of the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1999;403:486–501.
    1. Henke PG. The amygdala and restraint ulcers in rats. J Comp Physiol Psychol. 1980;94:313–323.
    1. Henke PG. Attenuation of shock-induced ulcers after lesions in the medial amygdala. Physiol Behav. 1981;27:143–146.
    1. Henke PG. Electrophysiological activity in the central nucleus of the amygdala: Emotionality and stress ulcers in rats. Behav Neurosci. 1988;102:77–83.
    1. Henke PG. Recent studies of the central nucleus of the amygdala and stress ulcers. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1988;12:143–150.
    1. Henke PG, Ray A, Sullivan RM. The amygdala. Emotions and gut functions. Dig Dis Sci. 1991;36:1633–1643.
    1. Herbert H, Moga MM, Saper CB. Connections of the parabrachial nucleus with the nucleus of the solitary tract and the medullary reticular formation in the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1990;293:540–580.
    1. Herbert H, Saper CB. Organization of medullary adrenergic and noradrenergic projections to the periaqueductal gray matter in the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1992;315:34–52.
    1. Herman JP, McKlveen JM, Solomon MB, Carvalho-Netto E, Myers B. Neural regulation of the stress response: Glucocorticoid feedback mechanisms. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2012;45:292–298.
    1. Hernandez DE, Emerick SG. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone: Medullary site of action to induce gastric ulcers and stimulate acid secretion. Brain Res. 1988;459:148–152.
    1. Hernandez DE, Jennes L, Emerick SG. Inhibition of gastric acid secretion by immunoneutralization of endogenous brain thyrotropin-releasing hormone. Brain Res. 1987;401:381–384.
    1. Hernandez DE, Salaiz AB, Morin P, Moreira MA. Administration of thyrotropin-releasing hormone into the central nucleus of the amygdala induces gastric lesions in rats. Brain Res Bull. 1990;24:697–699.
    1. Heymann-Monnikes I, Tache Y, Trauner M, Weiner H, Garrick T. CRF microinjected into the dorsal vagal complex inhibits TRH analog- and kainic acid-stimulated gastric contractility in rats. Brain Res. 1991;554:139–144.
    1. Hines M, Allen LS, Gorski RA. Sex differences in subregions of the medial nucleus of the amygdala and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis of the rat. Brain Res. 1992;579:321–326.
    1. Hirst GD, McKirdy HC. Presynaptic inhibition at mammalian peripheral synapse? Nature. 1974;250:430–431.
    1. Holmes GM. Upper gastrointestinal dysmotility after spinal cord injury: Is diminished vagal sensory processing one culprit? Front Physiol. 2012;3:277.
    1. Holmes GM, Browning K, Tong M, Qualls-Creekmore E, Travagli RA. Vagally-mediated effects of glucagon- like peptide 1 (GLP-1): in vitro and in vivo gastric actions. J Physiol. 2009;587:4749–4759.
    1. Holmes GM, Browning KN, Babic T, Fortna SR, Coleman FH, Travagli RA. Vagal afferent fibres determine the oxytocin-induced modulation of gastric tone. J Physiol. 2013;591:3081–3100.
    1. Holmes GM, Browning KN, Tong M, Qualls-Creekmore E, Travagli RA. Vagally mediated effects of glucagon-like peptide 1: In vitro and in vivo gastric actions. J Physiol. 2009;587:4749–4759.
    1. Holmes GM, Tong M, Travagli RA. Effects of brain stem cholecystokinin-8s on gastric tone and esophageal-gastric reflex. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2009;296:G621–G631.
    1. Holstege G, Meiners L, Tan K. Projections of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis to the mesencephalon, pons, and medulla oblongata in the cat. Exp Brain Res. 1985;58:379–391.
    1. Holtmann G, Goebell H, Jockenhoevel F, Talley NJ. Altered vagal and intestinal mechanosensory function in chronic unexplained dyspepsia. Gut. 1998;42:501–506.
    1. Holzer HH, Raybould HE. Vagal and splanchnic sensory pathways mediate inhibition of gastric motility induced by duodenal distension. Am J Physiol. 1992;262:G603–G608.
    1. Holzer P, Reichmann F, Farzi A. Neuropeptide Y, peptide YY and pancreatic polypeptide in the gut-brain axis. Neuropeptides. 2012;46:261–274.
    1. Hornby PJ, Rossiter CD, Pineo SV, Norman WP, Friedman EK, Benjamin S, Gillis RA. TRH: Immunocytochemical distribution in vagal nuclei of the cat and physiological effects of microinjection. Am J Physiol. 1989;257:G454–G462.
    1. Hornby PJ, Rossiter CD, White RL, Norman WP, Kuhn DH, Gillis RA. Medullary raphe: A new site for vagally mediated stimulated of gastric motility in cats. Am J Physiol. 1990;258:G637–G647.
    1. Horowitz M, Fraser R. Disordered gastric motor function in diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia. 1994;37:543–551.
    1. Huang XF, Tork I, Paxinos G. Dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve: A cyto- and chemoarchitectonic study in the human. J Comp Neurol. 1993;330:158–182.
    1. Hurley KM, Herbert H, Moga MM, Saper CB. Efferent projections of the infralimbic cortex of the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1991;308:249–276.
    1. Hurley-Gius KM, Neafsey EJ. The medial frontal cortex and gastric motility: Microstimulation results and their possible significance for the overall pattern of organization of rat frontal and parietal cortex. Brain Res. 1986;365:241–248.
    1. Hyland NP, Abrahams TP, Fuchs K, Burmeister MA, Hornby PJ. Organization and neurochemistry of vagal preganglionic neurons innervating the lower esophageal sphincter in ferrets. J Comp Neurol. 2001;430:222–234.
    1. Imaki T, Nahan JL, Rivier C, Sawchenko PE, Vale W. Differential regulation of corticotropin-releasing factor mRNA in rat brain regions by glucocorticoids and stress. J Neurosci. 1991;11:585–599.
    1. Imaki T, Vale W, Sawchenko PE. Regulation of corticotropin-releasing factor mRNA in neuroendocrine and autonomic neurons by osmotic stimulation and volume loading. Neuroendocrinology. 1992;56:633–640.
    1. Iwa M, Nakade Y, Pappas TN, Takahashi T. Electroacupuncture elicits dual effects: Stimulation of delayed gastric emptying and inhibition of accelerated colonic transit induced by restraint stress in rats. Dig Dis Sci. 2006;51:1493–1500.
    1. Iwasaki H, Kajimura M, Osawa S, Kanaoka S, Furuta T, Ikuma M, Hishida A. A deficiency of gastric interstitial cells of Cajal accompanied by decreased expression of neuronal nitric oxide synthase and substance P in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Gastroenterol. 2006;41:1076–1087.
    1. Janig W. Integration of gut function by sympathetic reflexes. Baillieres Clin Gastroenterol. 1988;2:45–62.
    1. Janig W, Khasar SG, Levine JD, Miao FJ. The role of vagal visceral afferents in the control of nociception. Prog Brain Res. 2000;122:273–287.
    1. Janig W, McLachlan EM. Organization of lumbar spinal outflow to distal colon and pelvic organs. Physiol Rev. 1987;67:1332–1404.
    1. Janig W, Morrison JF. Functional properties of spinal visceral afferents supplying abdominal and pelvic organs, with special emphasis on visceral nociception. Prog Brain Res. 1986;67:87–114.
    1. Jansen ASP, Hoffman JL, Loewy AD. CNS sites involved in sympathetic and parasympathetic control of the pancreas: A viral tracing study. Brain Res. 1997;766:29–38.
    1. Jarvinen MK, Powley TL. Dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus neurons: A multivariate taxonomy. J Comp Neurol. 1999;403:359–377.
    1. Jean A. The nucleus tractus solitarius: Neuroanatomic, neurochemical and functional aspects. Arch Int Physiol Biochim Biophys. 1991;99:A3–52.
    1. Jenkinson KM, Reid JJ. Altered non-adrenergic non-cholinergic neurotransmission in gastric fundus from streptozotocin-diabetic rats. Eur J Pharmacol. 2000;401:251–258.
    1. Jin YH, Bailey TW, Andresen MC. Cranial afferent glutamate heterosynaptically modulates GABA release onto second-order neurons via distinctly segregated metabotropic glutamate receptors. J Neurosci. 2004;24:9332–9340.
    1. Kalia M, Fuxe K, Goldstein M, Harfstrand A, Agnati LF, Coyle JT. Evidence for the existence of putative dopamine-, adrenanaline- and noradrenaline-containing vagal motor neurons in the brainstem of the rat. Neurosci Lett. 1984;50:57–62.
    1. Kalia M, Sullivan JM. Brainstem projections of sensory and motor components of the vagus nerve in the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1982;211:248–264.
    1. Karamanolis G, Tack J. Nutrition and motility disorders. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2006;20:485–505.
    1. Karimnamazi H, Travers SP, Travers JB. Oral and gastric input to the parabrachial nucleus of the rat. Brain Res. 2002;957:193–206.
    1. Karoum F, Commissiong JW, Neff NH, Wyatt RJ. Biochemical evidence for uncrossed and crossed locus coeruleus projections to the spinal cord. Brain Res. 1980;196:237–241.
    1. Kastin AJ, Akerstrom V, Pan W. Interactions of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) with the blood-brain barrier. J Mol Neurosci. 2002;18:7–14.
    1. Kawatani M, Shioda S, Nakai Y, Takeshige C, De Groat WC. Ultrastructural analysis of enkephalinergic terminals in parasympathetic ganglia innervating the urinary bladder of the cat. J Comp Neurol. 1989;288:81–91.
    1. Keay KA, Feil K, Gordon BD, Herbert H, Bandler R. Spinal afferents to functionally distinct periaqueductal gray columns in the rat: An anterograde and retrograde tracing study. J Comp Neurol. 1997;385:207–229.
    1. Keller J, Runzi M, Goebell H, Layer P. Duodenal and ileal nutrient deliveries regulate human intestinal motor and pancreatic responses to a meal. Am J Physiol. 1997;272:G632–G637.
    1. Kennedy C, Krier J. Delta-opioid receptors mediate inhibition of fast excitatory postsynaptic potentials in cat parasympathetic colonic ganglia. Br J Pharmacol. 1987;92:437–443.
    1. Kim MS, Jo YH, Yoon SH, Hahn SJ, Rhie DJ, Kim CC, Choi H. Electrical stimulation of the medial amygdala facilitates gastric acid secretion in conscious rats. Brain Res. 1990;524:208–212.
    1. King BF, Townsend-Nicholson A. Involvement of P2Y1 and P2Y11 purinoceptors in parasympathetic inhibition of colonic smooth muscle. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2008;324:1055–1063.
    1. Kobashi M, Adachi A. Effect of topical administration of glucose on neurons innervating abdominal viscera in dorsal motor nucleus of vagus in rats. Jpn J Physiol. 1994;44:729–734.
    1. Kobayashi RM, Palkovits M, Kopin IJ, Jacobowitz DM. Biochemical mapping of noradrenergic nerves arising from the rat locus coeruleus. Brain Res. 1974;77:269–279.
    1. Konturek PC, Konturek SJ, Ochmanski W. Neuroendocrinology of gastric H+ and duodenal HCO3− secretion: The role of brain-gut axis. Eur J Pharmacol. 2004;499:15–27.
    1. Krettek JE, Price JL. Amygdaloid projections to subcortical structures within the basal forebrain and brainstem in the rat and cat. J Comp Neurol. 1978;178:225–254.
    1. Krout KE, Jansen AS, Loewy AD. Periaqueductal gray matter projection to the parabrachial nucleus in rat. J Comp Neurol. 1998;401:437–454.
    1. Krowicki ZK, Hornby PJ. Serotonin and Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone do not augment their effects on Gastric Motility on their microinjection into the nucleus raphe obscurus of the rat. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1995;273:499–508.
    1. Krowicki ZK, Nathan NA, Hornby PJ. Gastric motor and cardiovascular effects of insulin in dorsal vagal complex of the rat. Am J Physiol. 1998;275:G964–G972.
    1. Krowicki ZK, Sharkey KA, Serron SC, Nathan NA, Hornby PJ. Distribution of nitric oxide synthase in rat dorsal vagal complex and effects of microinjection of nitric oxide compounds upon gastric motor function. J Comp Neurol. 1997;377:49–69.
    1. Kwiat GC, Basbaum AI. Organization of tyrosine hydroxylase- and serotonin-immunoreactive brainstem neurons with axon collaterals to the periaqueductal gray and the spinal cord in the rat. Brain Res. 1990;528:83–94.
    1. Lachey JL, D’Alessio DA, Rinaman L, Elmquist JK, Drucker DJ, Seeley RJ. The role of central glucagon-like peptide-1 in mediating the effects of visceral illness: Differential effects in rats and mice. Endocrinology. 2005;146:458–462.
    1. Lacolley P, Owen JR, Sandock K, Lewis TH, Bates JN, Robertson TP, Lewis SJ. 5-HT activates vagal afferent cell bodies in vivo: Role of 5-HT2 and 5-HT3 receptors. Neuroscience. 2006;143:273–287.
    1. Lacolley P, Owen JR, Sandock K, Lewis TH, Bates JN, Robertson TP, Lewis SJ. Occipital artery injections of 5-HT may directly activate the cell bodies of vagal and glossopharyngeal afferent cell bodies in the rat. Neuroscience. 2006;143:289–308.
    1. Ladabaum U, Minoshima S, Hasler WL, Cross D, Chey WD, Owyang C. Gastric distention correlates with activation of multiple cortical and subcortical regions. Gastroenterology. 2001;120:369–376.
    1. Ladic LA, Buchan AM. Association of substance P and its receptor with efferent neurons projecting to the greater curvature of the rat stomach. J Auton Nerv Syst. 1996;58:25–34.
    1. Langley JN, Anderson HK. On the innervation of the pelvic and adjoining viscera: Part I. The lower portion of the intestine. J Physiol. 1895;18:67–105.
    1. Lazovic J, Wrzos HF, Yang QX, Collins CM, Smith MB, Norgren R, Matyas K, Ouyang A. Regional activation in the rat brain during visceral stimulation detected by c-fos expression and fMRI. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2005;17:548–556.
    1. Le Brun I, Dufour A, Crest M, Szabo G, Erdelyi F, Baude A. Differential expression of Nk1 and NK3 neurokinin receptors in neurons of the nucleus tractus solitarius and the dorsal vagal motor nucleus of the rat and mouse. Neuroscience. 2008;152:56–64.
    1. LeDoux JE, Farb C, Ruggiero DA. Topographic organization of neurons in the acoustic thalamus that project to the amygdala. J Neurosci. 1990;10:1043–1054.
    1. Lee J, Cummings BP, Martin E, Sharp JW, Graham JL, Stanhope KL, Havel PJ, Raybould HE. Glucose sensing by gut endocrine cells and activation of the vagal afferent pathway is impaired in a rodent model of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2012;302:R657–R666.
    1. Lee PG, Cai F, Helke CJ. Streptozotocin-induced diabetes reduces retrograde axonal transport in the afferent and efferent vagus nerve. Brain Res. 2002;941:127–136.
    1. Lee PG, Hohman TC, Cai F, Regalia J, Helke CJ. Streptozotocin-induced diabetes causes metabolic changes and alterations in neurotrophin content and retrograde transport in the cervical vagus nerve. Exp Neurol. 2001;170:149–161.
    1. Lenz HJ, Burlage M, Raedler A, Greten H. Central nervous system effects of corticotropin-releasing factor on gastrointestinal transit in the rat. Gastroenterology. 1988;94:598–602.
    1. Levin BE, Routh VH, Kang L, Sanders NM, Dunn-Meynell AA. Neuronal glucosensing: What do we know after 50 years? Diabetes. 2004;53:2521–2528.
    1. Lewis MW, Hermann GE, Rogers RC, Travagli RA. In vitro and in vivo analysis of the effects of corticotropin releasing factor on rat dorsal vagal complex. J Physiol. 2002;543:135–146.
    1. Lewis MW, Travagli RA. Effects of substance P on identified neurons of the rat dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. Am J Physiol. 2001;281:G164–G172.
    1. Li B, Guo CL, Tang J, Zhu JN, Wang JJ. Cerebellar fastigial nuclear inputs and peripheral feeding signals converge on neurons in the dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus. Neurosignals. 2009;17:132–143.
    1. Li M, Han F, Shi Y. Expression of locus coeruleus mineralocorticoid receptor and glucocorticoid receptor in rats under single-prolonged stress. Neurol Sci. 2011;32:625–631.
    1. Li YQ, Jia HG, Rao ZR, Shi JW. Serotonin-, substance P- or leucine-enkephalin-containing neurons in the midbrain periaqueductal gray and nucleus raphe dorsalis send projection fibers to the central amygdaloid nucleus in the rat. Neurosci Lett. 1990;120:124–127.
    1. Lightman SL. Corticotropin-releasing factor. From stress to cognition. Nature. 1995;378:233–234.
    1. Lin HC, Zhao XT, Wang L. Fat absorption is not complete by midgut but is dependent on load of fat. Am J Physiol. 1996;271:G62–G67.
    1. Lisander B, Martner J. Effects on gastric motility from the cerebellar fastigial nucleus. Acta Physiol Scand. 1975;94:368–377.
    1. Little TJ, Horowitz M, Feinle-Bisset C. Modulation by high-fat diets of gastrointestinal function and hormones associated with the regulation of energy intake: Implications for the pathophysiology of obesity. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86:531–541.
    1. Liu LS, Winston JH, Shenoy MM, Song GQ, Chen JD, Pasricha PJ. A rat model of chronic gastric sensorimotor dysfunction resulting from transient neonatal gastric irritation. Gastroenterol. 2008;134:2070–2079.
    1. Liu M, Seino S, Kirchgessner AL. Identification and characterization of glucoresponsive neurons in the enteric nervous system. J Neurosci. 1999;19:10305–10317.
    1. Liu RP. Laminar origins of spinal projection neurons to the periaqueductal gray of the rat. Brain Res. 1983;264:118–122.
    1. Liubashina O, Bagaev V, Khotiantsev S. Amygdalofugal modulation of the vago-vagal gastric motor reflex in rat. Neurosci Lett. 2002;325:183–186.
    1. Llewellyn-Smith IJ, Kellett DO, Jordan D, Browning KN, Travagli RA. Oxytocin-immunoreactive innervation of identified neurons in the rat dorsal vagal complex. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2012;24:e136–e146.
    1. Lomax AE, Sharkey KA, Furness JB. The participation of the sympathetic innervation of the gastrointestinal tract in disease states. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2010;22:7–18.
    1. Longhurst JC, Ibarra J. Sympathoadrenal mechanisms in hemodynamic responses to gastric distension in cats. Am J Physiol. 1982;243:H748–H753.
    1. Lorber M. Results of simulated mastication suggest existence of a periodontogastric motility reflex. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 2000;78:29–35.
    1. Luiten PG, Ter Horst GJ, Karst H, Steffens AB. The course of paraventricular hypothalamic efferents to autonomic structures in medulla and spinal cord. Brain Res. 1985;329:374–378.
    1. Luppi PH, Aston-Jones G, Akaoka H, Chouvet G, Jouvet M. Afferent projections to the rat locus coeruleus demonstrated by retrograde and anterograde tracing with cholera-toxin B subunit and Phaseolus vulgaris leucoagglutinin. Neuroscience. 1995;65:119–160.
    1. Lynn RB, Kreider MS, Miselis RR. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone-immunoreactive projections to the dorsal motor nucleus and the nucleus of the solitary tract of the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1991;311:271–288.
    1. Lyubashina OA. Possible mechanisms of involvement of the amygdaloid complex in the control of gastric motor function. Neurosci Behav Physiol. 2004;34:379–388.
    1. Mahaut S, Dumont Y, Fournier A, Quirion R, Moyse E. Neuropeptide Y receptor subtypes in the dorsal vagal complex under acute feeding adaptation in the adult rat. Neuropeptides. 2010;44:77–86.
    1. Maljaars PW, Peters HP, Mela DJ, Masclee AA. Ileal brake: A sensible food target for appetite control. A review. Physiol Behav. 2008;95:271–281.
    1. Manchanda SK, Tandon OP, Aneja IS. Role of the cerebellum in the control of gastro-intestinal motility. J Neural Transm. 1972;33:195–209.
    1. Mantyh PW, Peschanski M. Spinal projections from the periaqueductal grey and dorsal raphe in the rat, cat and monkey. Neuroscience. 1982;7:2769–2776.
    1. Marks JD, Donnelly DF, Haddad GG. Adenosine-induced inhibition of vagal motoneuron excitability: Receptor subtype and mechanisms. Am J Physiol. 1993;264:L124–L132.
    1. Martinez de la Pena y Valenzuela I, Browning KN, Travagli RA. Morphological differences between planes of section do not influence the electrophysiological properties of identified rat dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus neurons. Brain Res. 2004;1003:54–60.
    1. Martinez de la Pena y Valenzuela I, Rogers RC, Hermann GE, Travagli RA. Norepinephrine effects on identified neurons of the rat dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2004;286:G333–G339.
    1. Martinez V, Barrachina MD, Ohning G, Tache Y. Cephalic phase of acid secretion involves activation of medullary TRH receptor subtype 1 in rats. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2002;283:G1310–G1319.
    1. Martinez V, Wang L, Tache Y. Proximal colon distension induces Fos expression in the brain and inhibits gastric emptying through capsaicin-sensitive pathways in conscious rats. Brain Res. 2006;1086:168–180.
    1. Matteoli G, Boeckxstaens GE. The vagal innervation of the gut and immune homeostasis. Gut. 2013;62:1214–1222.
    1. Mayer EA, Aziz Q, Coen S, Kern M, Labus JS, Lane R, Kuo B, Naliboff B, Tracey I. Brain imaging approaches to the study of functional GI disorders: A Rome working team report. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2009;21:579–596.
    1. Mayer EA, Berman S, Suyenobu B, Labus J, Mandelkern MA, Naliboff BD, Chang L. Differences in brain responses to visceral pain between patients with irritable bowel syndrome and ulcerative colitis. Pain. 2005;115:398–409.
    1. Mayer EA, Naliboff BD, Craig AD. Neuroimaging of the brain-gut axis: From basic understanding to treatment of functional GI disorders. Gastroenterology. 2006;131:1925–1942.
    1. Mayo KE, Miller LJ, Bataille D, Dalle S, Goke B, Thorens B, Drucker DJ. International Union of Pharmacology. XXXV. The glucagon receptor family. Pharmacol Rev. 2003;55:167–194.
    1. Mazei-Robinson MS, Nestler EJ. Opiate-induced molecular and cellular plasticity of ventral tegmental area and locus coeruleus catecholamine neurons. Cold Spring Harbor Perspect Med. 2012;2:1–16.
    1. Mei N. Vagal glucoreceptors in the small intestine of the cat. J Physiol. 1978;282:485–506.
    1. Mei N. Intestinal chemosensitivity. Physiol Rev. 1985;65:211–237.
    1. Menetrey D, Basbaum AI. Spinal and trigeminal projections to the nucleus of the solitary tract: A possible substrate for somatovisceral and viscerovisceral reflex activation. J Comp Neurol. 1987;255:439–450.
    1. Menetrey D, de Pommery J. Origins of spinal ascending pathways that reach central areas involved in visceroception and visceronociception in the rat. Eur J Neurosci. 1991;3:249–259.
    1. Micevych P, Akesson T, Elde R. Distribution of cholecystokinin-immunoreactive cell bodies in the male and female rat: II. Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and amygdala. J Comp Neurol. 1988;269:381–391.
    1. Miller AD, Nonaka S, Jakus J. Brain areas essential or non-essential for emesis. Brain Res. 1994;647:255–264.
    1. Miller AD, Ruggiero DA. Emetic reflex arc revealed by expression of the immediate-early gene c-fos in the cat. J Neurosci. 1994;14:871–888.
    1. Miller MA, Vician L, Clifton DK, Dorsa DM. Sex differences in vasopressin neurons in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis by in situ hybridization. Peptides. 1989;10:615–619.
    1. Million M, Wang L, Martinez V, Tache Y. Differential Fos expression in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, sacral parasympathetic nucleus and colonic motor response to water avoidance stress in Fischer and Lewis rats. Brain Res. 2000;877:345–353.
    1. Min DK, Tuor UI, Chelikani PK. Gastric distention induced functional magnetic resonance signal changes in the rodent brain. Neuroscience. 2011;179:151–158.
    1. Moga MM, Herbert H, Hurley KM, Yasui Y, Gray TS, Saper CB. Organization of cortical, basal forebrain, and hypothalamic afferents to the parabrachial nucleus in the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1990;295:624–661.
    1. Molinari C, Sabbatini M, Grossini E, Mary DA, Cannas M, Vacca G. Cardiovascular effects and c-Fos expression in the rat hindbrain in response to innocuous stomach distension. Brain Res Bull. 2006;69:140–146.
    1. Moloney RD, Desbonnet L, Clarke G, Dinan TG, Cryan JF. The microbiome: Stress, health and disease. Mamm Genome. 2013;25:49–74.
    1. Monnikes H, Schmidt BG, Raybould HE, Tache Y. CRF in the paraventricular nucleus mediates gastric and colonic motor response to restraint stress. Am J Physiol. 1992;262:G137–G143.
    1. Monnikes H, Schmidt BG, Tebbe J, Bauer C, Tache Y. Microinfusion of corticotropin releasing factor into the locus coeruleus/subcoeruleus nuclei stimulates colonic motor function in rats. Brain Res. 1994;644:101–108.
    1. Monnikes H, Tebbe J, Bauer C, Lauer G, Arnold R. Microinfusion of corticotropin-releasing factor into the locus coeruleus/subcoeruleus nuclei inhibits gastric acid secretion via spinal pathways in the rat. Brain Res. 1996;728:157–165.
    1. Morrow NS, Grijalva CV, Geiselman PJ, Novin D. Effects of amygdaloid lesions on gastric erosion formation during exposure to activity-stress. Physiol Behav. 1993;53:1043–1048.
    1. Morton AP, Hanson PJ. Monosaccharide transport by the small intestine of lean and genetically obese (ob/ob) mice. Q J Exp Physiol. 1984;69:117–126.
    1. Myers B, Greenwood-Van Meerveld B. Role of anxiety in the pathophysiology of irritable bowel syndrome: Importance of the amygdala. Front Neurosci. 2009;3:47.
    1. Myers B, Greenwood-Van Meerveld B. Differential involvement of amygdala corticosteroid receptors in visceral hyperalgesia following acute or repeated stress. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2012;302:G260–G266.
    1. Myers B, McKlveen JM, Herman JP. Neural regulation of the stress response: The many faces of feedback. Cell Mol Neurobiol. 2012 [Epub ahead of print]
    1. Nadelhaft I, Booth AM. The location and morphology of preganglionic neurons and the distribution of visceral afferents from the rat pelvic nerve: A horseradish peroxidase study. J Comp Neurol. 1984;226:238–245.
    1. Nakabayashi H, Nishizawa M, Nakagawa A, Takeda R, Niijima A. Vagal hepatopancreatic reflex effect evoked by intraportal appearance of tGLP-1. Am J Physiol. 1996;271:E808–E813.
    1. Nakagawa A, Satake H, Nakabayashi H, Nishizawa M, Furuya K, Nakano S, Kigoshi T, Nakayama K, Uchida K. Receptor gene expression of glucagon-like peptide-1, but not glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide, in rat nodose ganglion cells. Auton Neurosci. 2004;110:36–43.
    1. Neuman KO. The afferent fibres of the abdominal vagus in the rabbit and cat. J Physiol. 1914;49:34–37.
    1. Nonaka N, Shioda S, Niehoff ML, Banks WA. Characterization of blood-brain barrier permeability to PYY3-36 in the mouse. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003;306:948–953.
    1. Norgren R. Taste pathways to hypothalamus and amygdala. J Comp Neurol. 1976;166:17–30.
    1. Norgren R, Smith GP. Central distribution of subdiaphragmatic vagal branches in the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1988;273:207–223.
    1. North RA, Surprenant A. Inhibitory synaptic potentials resulting from alpha 2-adrenoceptor activation in guinea-pig submucous plexus neurones. J Physiol. 1985;358:17–33.
    1. Nosaka S, Murase S, Murata K. Arterial baroreflex inhibition by gastric distension in rats: Mediation by splanchnic afferents. Am J Physiol. 1991;260:R985–R994.
    1. Olsson C, Chen BN, Jones S, Chataway TK, Costa M, Brookes SJ. Comparison of extrinsic efferent innervation of guinea pig distal colon and rectum. J Comp Neurol. 2006;496:787–801.
    1. Ordog T, Baldo M, Danko R, Sanders KM. Plasticity of electrical pacemaking by interstitial cells of Cajal and gastric dysrhythmias in W/W mutant mice. Gastroenterology. 2002;123:2028–2040.
    1. Ordog T, Takayama I, Cheung WK, Ward SM, Sanders KM. Remodeling of networks of interstitial cells of Cajal in a murine model of diabetic gastroparesis. Diabetes. 2000;49:1731–1739.
    1. Oro AE, Simerly RB, Swanson LW. Estrous cycle variations in levels of cholecystokinin immunoreactivity within cells of three interconnected sexually dimorphic forebrain nuclei. Evidence for a regulatory role for estrogen. Neuroendocrinology. 1988;47:225–235.
    1. Orts-Del’immagine A, Wanaverbecq N, Tardivel C, Tillement V, Dallaporta M, Trouslard J. Properties of subependymal cerebrospinal fluid contacting neurones in the dorsal vagal complex of the mouse brainstem. J Physiol. 2012;590:3719–3741.
    1. Ottersen OP. Afferent connections to the amygdaloid complex of the rat with some observations in the cat. III. Afferents from the lower brain stem. J Comp Neurol. 1981;202:335–356.
    1. Owens NC, Verberne AJ. An electrophysiological study of the medial prefrontal cortical projection to the nucleus of the solitary tract in rat. Exp Brain Res. 1996;110:55–61.
    1. Palkovits M, Mezey E, Eskay RL, Brownstein MJ. Innervation of the nucleus of the solitary tract and the dorsal vagal nucleus by thyrotropin-releasing hormone-containing raphe neurons. Brain Res. 1986;373:246–251.
    1. Panneton WM, McCulloch PF, Sun W. Trigemino-autonomic connections in the muskrat: The neural substrate for the diving response. Brain Res. 2000;874:48–65.
    1. Panteleev S, Grundy D. Descending influences from the infralimbic cortex on vago-vagal reflex control of gastric motor activity in the rat. Auton Neurosci. 2000;86:78–83.
    1. Parsons BJ, Poat JA, Roberts PA. Studies of the mechanism of noradrenaline stimulation of fluid absorption by rat jejunum in vitro. J Physiol. 1984;355:427–439.
    1. Pastorelli L, De SC, Mercado JR, Vecchi M, Pizarro TT. Central role of the gut epithelial barrier in the pathogenesis of chronic intestinal inflammation: Lessons learned from animal models and human genetics. Front Immunol. 2013;4:280.
    1. Paulino G, Barbier dlS, Knotts TA, Oort PJ, Newman JW, Adams SH, Raybould HE. Increased expression of receptors for orexigenic factors in nodose ganglion of diet-induced obese rats. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2009;296:E898–E903.
    1. Pavcovich LA, Yang M, Miselis RR, Valentino RJ. Novel role for the pontine micturition center, Barrington’s nucleus: Evidence for coordination of colonic and forebrain activity. Brain Res. 1998;784:355–361.
    1. Pavlov VA, Tracey KJ. The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway. Brain Behav Immun. 2005;19:493–499.
    1. Pavlov VA, Tracey KJ. Controlling inflammation: The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway. Biochem Soc Trans. 2006;34:1037–1040.
    1. Pavlov VA, Wang H, Czura CJ, Friedman SG, Tracey KJ. The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway: A missing link in neuroimmunomodulation. Mol Med. 2003;9:125–134.
    1. Peng YB, Lin Q, Willis WD. Effects of GABA and glycine receptor antagonists on the activity and PAG-induced inhibition of rat dorsal horn neurons. Brain Res. 1996;736:189–201.
    1. Perrin J, Crousillat J, Mei N. Assessment of true splanchnic glucoreceptors in the jejuno-ileum of the cat. Brain Res Bull. 1981;7:625–628.
    1. Peters JH, McDougall SJ, Kellett DO, Jordan D, Llewellyn-Smith IJ, Andresen MC. Oxytocin enhances cranial visceral afferent synaptic transmission to the solitary tract nucleus. J Neurosci. 2008;28:11731–11740.
    1. Phillips RJ, Powley TL. Macrophages associated with the intrinsic and extrinsic autonomic innervation of the rat gastrointestinal tract. Auton Neurosci. 2012;169:12–27.
    1. Plata-Salaman CR, Fukuda A, Minami T, Oomura Y. Substance P effects on the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. Brain Res Bull. 1989;23:149–153.
    1. Polston EK, Gu G, Simerly RB. Neurons in the principal nucleus of the bed nuclei of the stria terminalis provide a sexually dimorphic GABAergic input to the anteroventral periventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. Neuroscience. 2004;123:793–803.
    1. Porcher C, Sinniger V, Juhem A, Mouchet P, Bonaz B. Neuronal activity and CRF receptor gene transcription in the brains of rats with colitis. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2004;287:G803–G814.
    1. Powley TL. Vagal circuitry mediating cephalic-phase responses to food. Appetite. 2000;34:184–188.
    1. Price CJ, Hoyda TD, Ferguson AV. The area postrema: A brain monitor and integrator of systemic autonomic state. Neuroscientist. 2008;14:182–194.
    1. Price JL, Amaral DG. An autoradiographic study of the projections of the central nucleus of the monkey amygdala. J Neurosci. 1981;1:1242–1259.
    1. Qualls-Creekmore E, Tong M, Holmes GM. Gastric emptying of enterally administered liquid meal in conscious rats and during sustained anaesthesia. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2010;22:181–185.
    1. Raggenbass M, Dreifuss JJ. Mechanism of action of oxytocin in rat vagal neurones: Induction of a sustained sodium-dependent current. J Physiol. 1992;457:131–142.
    1. Raggenbass M, Dubois-Dauphin M, Charpak S, Dreifuss JJ. Neurons in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve are excited by oxytocin in the rat but not in the guinea pig. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987;84:3926–3930.
    1. Randich A, Gebhart DF. Vagal afferent modulation of nociception. Brain Res Rev. 1992;17:77–99.
    1. Raybould HE. Does your gut taste? Sensory transduction in the gastrointestinal tract. News Physiol Sci. 1998;13:275–280.
    1. Raybould HE. Nutrient tasting and signaling mechanisms in the gut. I. Sensing of lipid by the intestinal mucosa. Am J Physiol. 1999;277:G751–G755.
    1. Raybould HE. Visceral perception: Sensory transduction in visceral afferents and nutrients. Gut. 2002;51(Suppl 1):I11–I14.
    1. Raybould HE, Glatzle J, Robin C, Meyer JH, Phan T, Wong H, Sternini C. Expression of 5-HT3 receptors by extrinsic duodenal afferents contribute to intestinal inhibition of gastric emptying. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2003;284:G367–G372.
    1. Raybould HE, Roberts ME, Dockray GJ. Reflex decreases in intragastric pressure in response to cholecystokinin in rats. Am J Physiol. 1987;253:G165–G170.
    1. Raymer CK, Park HS, Wishart JM, Kong M-F, Doran SM, Horowitz M. Effects of intraduodenal glucose and fructose on antropyloric motility and appetite in healthy humans. Am J Physiol. 2000;278:R360–R366.
    1. Read NW, McFarlane A, Kinsman RI, Bates TE, Blackhall NW, Farrar GB, Hall JC, Moss G, Morris AP, O’Neill B. Effect of infusion of nutrient solutions into the ileum on gastrointestinal transit and plasma levels of neurotensin and enteroglucagon. Gastroenterol. 1984;86:274–280.
    1. Regalia J, Cai F, Helke C. Streptozotocin-induced diabetes and the neurochemistry of vagal afferent neurons. Brain Res. 2002;938:7–14.
    1. Reichling DB, Basbaum AI. Collateralization of periaqueductal gray neurons to forebrain or diencephalon and to the medullary nucleus raphe magnus in the rat. Neuroscience. 1991;42:183–200.
    1. Ren K, Randich A, Gebhart GF. Modulation of spinal nociceptive transmission from nuclei tractus solitarii: A relay for effects of vagal afferent stimulation. J Neurophysiol. 1990;63:971–986.
    1. Renehan WE, Zhang X, Beierwaltes WH, Fogel R. Neurons in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus may integrate vagal and spinal information from the GI tract. Am J Physiol. 1995;268:G780–G790.
    1. Reyes BA, Valentino RJ, Xu G, Van Bockstaele EJ. Hypothalamic projections to locus coeruleus neurons in rat brain. Eur J Neurosci. 2005;22:93–106.
    1. Reynolds DJ, Barber NA, Grahame-Smith DG, Leslie RA. Cisplatin-evoked induction of c-fos protein in the brainstem of the ferret: The effect of cervical vagotomy and the anti-emetic 5-HT3 receptor antagonist granisetron (BRL 43694) Brain Res. 1991;565:231–236.
    1. Reynolds DV. Surgery in the rat during electrical analgesia induced by focal brain stimulation. Science. 1969;164:444–445.
    1. Rhim H, Glaum S, Miller RJ. Selective opioid agonists modulate afferent transmission in the rat nucleus tractus solitarius. JPET. 1992;264:795–780.
    1. Ricardo JA, Koh ET. Anatomical evidence of direct projections from the nucleus of the solitary tract to the hypothalamus, amygdala, and other forebrain structures in the rat. Brain Res. 1978;153:1–26.
    1. Richar P, Moos F, Freund-Mercier M-J. Central effects of oxytocin. Physiol Rev. 1991;71:331–370.
    1. Rinaman L. Interoceptive stress activates glucagon-like peptide-1 neurons that project to the hypothalamus. Am J Physiol. 1999;277:R582–R590.
    1. Rinaman L. Visceral sensory inputs to the endocrine hypothalamus. Front Neuroendocrinol. 2007;28:50–60.
    1. Rinaman L, Card JP, Schwaber JS, Miselis RR. Ultrastructural demonstration of a gastric monsynaptic vagal cirucit in the nucleus of the solitary tract in rat. Journal of Neuroscience. 1989;9:1985–1996.
    1. Rinaman L, Schwartz G. Anterograde transneuronal viral tracing of central viscerosensory pathways in rats. J Neurosci. 2004;24:2782–2786.
    1. Rizvi TA, Ennis M, Behbehani MM, Shipley MT. Connections between the central nucleus of the amygdala and the midbrain periaqueductal gray: Topography and reciprocity. J Comp Neurol. 1991;303:121–131.
    1. Rizvi TA, Ennis M, Shipley MT. Reciprocal connections between the medial preoptic area and the midbrain periaqueductal gray in rat: A WGA-HRP and PHA-L study. J Comp Neurol. 1992;315:1–15.
    1. Rogers RC, Hermann GE, Travagli RA. Brainstem pathways responsible for oesophageal control of gastric motility and tone in the rat. J Physiol. 1999;514:369–383.
    1. Rogers RC, Travagli RA, Hermann GE. Noradrenergic neurons in the rat solitary nucleus participate in the esophageal-gastric relaxation reflex. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2003;285:R479–R489.
    1. Roosen L, Boesmans W, Dondeyne M, Depoortere I, Tack J, Vanden Berghe P. Specific hunger- and satiety-induced tuning of guinea pig enteric nerve activity. J Physiol. 2012;590:4321–4333.
    1. Rosas-Ballina M, Olofsson PS, Ochani M, Valdes-Ferrer SI, Levine YA, Reardon C, Tusche MW, Pavlov VA, Andersson U, Chavan S, Mak TW, Tracey KJ. Acetylcholine-synthesizing T cells relay neural signals in a vagus nerve circuit. Science. 2011;334:98–101.
    1. Rosas-Ballina M, Tracey KJ. The neurology of the immune system: Neural reflexes regulate immunity. Neuron. 2009;64:28–32.
    1. Rouzade-Dominguez ML, Curtis AL, Valentino RJ. Role of Barrington’s nucleus in the activation of rat locus coeruleus neurons by colonic distension. Brain Res. 2001;917:206–218.
    1. Rouzade-Dominguez ML, Miselis R, Valentino RJ. Central representation of bladder and colon revealed by dual transsynaptic tracing in the rat: Substrates for pelvic visceral coordination. Eur J Neurosci. 2003;18:3311–3324.
    1. Rouzade-Dominguez ML, Pernar L, Beck S, Valentino RJ. Convergent responses of Barrington’s nucleus neurons to pelvic visceral stimuli in the rat: A juxtacellular labelling study. Eur J Neurosci. 2003;18:3325–3334.
    1. Sabbatini M, Molinari C, Grossini E, Mary DA, Vacca G, Cannas M. The pattern of c-Fos immunoreactivity in the hindbrain of the rat following stomach distension. Exp Brain Res. 2004;157:315–323.
    1. Sah P. Role of calcium influx and buffering in the kinetics of a Ca2+-activated K+ current in rat vagal motoneurons. J Neurophysiol. 1992;65:2237–2247.
    1. Sah P. Different calcium channels are coupled to potassium channels with distinct physiological roles in vagal neurons. Proc R Soc Lond B. 1995;260:105–111.
    1. Sanders KM, Koh SD, Ro S, Ward SM. Regulation of gastrointestinal motility–insights from smooth muscle biology. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012;9:633–645.
    1. Sandkuhler J, Gebhart GF. Relative contributions of the nucleus raphe magnus and adjacent medullary reticular formation to the inhibition by stimulation in the periaqueductal gray of a spinal nociceptive reflex in the pentobarbital-anesthetized rat. Brain Res. 1984;305:77–87.
    1. Saper CB. Convergence of autonomic and limbic connections in the insular cortex of the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1982;210:163–173.
    1. Saper CB, Loewy AD. Efferent connections of the parabrachial nucleus in the rat. Brain Res. 1980;197:291–317.
    1. Saper CB, Loewy AD, Swanson LW, Cowan WM. Direct hypothalamo-autonomic connections. Brain Res. 1976;117:305–312.
    1. Sara SJ, Bouret S. Orienting and reorienting: The locus coeruleus mediates cognition through arousal. Neuron. 2012;76:130–141.
    1. Sartor DM, Verberne AJ. Cholecystokinin selectively affects presympathetic vasomotor neurons and sympathetic vasomotor outflow. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2002;282:R1174–R1184.
    1. Sawchenko PE, Swanson LW. Central noradrenergic pathways for the integration of hypothalamic neuroendocrine and autonomic responses. Science. 1981;214:685–687.
    1. Sayegh AI, Covasa M, Ritter RC. Intestinal infusions of oleate and glucose activate distinct enteric neurons in the rat. Auton Neurosci. 2004;115:54–63.
    1. Schaller B, Probst R, Strebel S, Gratzl O. Trigeminocardiac reflex during surgery in the cerebellopontine angle. J Neurosurg. 1999;90:215–220.
    1. Schemann M, Grundy D. Electrophysiological identification of vagally innervated enteric neurons in guinea pig stomach. Am J Physiol. 1992;263:G709–G718.
    1. Schubert ML. Gastric secretion. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2003;19:519–525.
    1. Schubert ML, Shamburek RD. Control of acid secretion. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 1990;19:1–25.
    1. Schvarcz E, Palmer M, Aman J, Horowitz M, Stridsberg M, Berne C. Physiological hyperglycemia slows gastric emptying in normal subjects and patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Gastroenterology. 1997;113:60–66.
    1. Schwaber JS, Sternini C, Brecha NC, Rogers WT, Card JP. Neurons containing calcitonin gene-related peptide in the parabrachial nucleus project to the central nucleus of the amygdala. J Comp Neurol. 1988;270:416–419.
    1. Shapiro RE, Miselis RR. The central organization of the vagus nerve innervating the stomach of the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1985;238:473–488.
    1. Shen KZ, Barajas-Lopez C, Surprenant A. Functional characterization of neuronal pre and postsynaptic alpha 2-adrenoceptor subtypes in guinea-pig submucosal plexus. Br J Pharmacol. 1990;101:925–931.
    1. Shepard JD, Myers DA. Strain differences in anxiety-like behavior: Association with corticotropin-releasing factor. Behav Brain Res. 2008;186:239–245.
    1. Shi M, Jones AR, Ferreira M, Jr, Sahibzada N, Gillis RA, Verbalis JG. Glucose does not activate nonadrenergic, noncholinergic inhibitory neurons in the rat stomach. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2005;288:R742–R750.
    1. Shin JW, Geerling JC, Loewy AD. Inputs to the ventrolateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. J Comp Neurol. 2008;511:628–657.
    1. Shinpo K, Hirai Y, Maezawa H, Totsuka Y, Funahashi M. The role of area postrema neurons expressing H-channels in the induction mechanism of nausea and vomiting. Physiol Behav. 2012;107:98–103.
    1. Shipley MT. Insular cortex projection to the nucleus of the solitary tract and brainstem visceromotor regions in the mouse. Brain Res Bull. 1982;8:139–148.
    1. Shoja MM, Tubbs RS, Ansarin K, Farahani RM. Proposal for the existence of a nasogastric reflex in humans, as a potential cause of upper gastrointestinal symptoms. Med Hypotheses. 2007;69:346–348.
    1. Simerly RB, Chang C, Muramatsu M, Swanson LW. Distribution of androgen and estrogen receptor mRNA-containing cells in the rat brain: An in situ hybridization study. J Comp Neurol. 1990;294:76–95.
    1. Simmons MA. The complexity and diversity of synaptic transmission in the prevertebral sympathetic ganglia. Prog Neurobiol. 1985;24:43–93.
    1. Sivarao DV, Krowicki ZK, Hornby PJ. Role of GABAA receptors in rat hindbrain nuclei controlling gastric motor function. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 1998;10:305–313.
    1. Song G, Xu H, Wang H, Macdonald SM, Poon CS. Hypoxia-excited neurons in NTS send axonal projections to Kolliker-Fuse/parabrachial complex in dorsolateral pons. Neuroscience. 2011;175:145–153.
    1. Spiller RC, Trotman IF, Higgins BE, Ghatei MA, Grimble GK, Lee YC, Bloom SR, Misiewicz JJ, Silk DB. The ileal brake–inhibition of jejunal motility after ileal fat perfusion in man. Gut. 1984;25:365–374.
    1. Stengel A, Tache Y. Neuroendocrine control of the gut during stress: Corticotropin-releasing factor signaling pathways in the spotlight. Annu Rev Physiol. 2009;71:219–239.
    1. Stenvers DJ, Jonkers CF, Fliers E, Bisschop PH, Kalsbeek A. Nutrition and the circadian timing system. Prog Brain Res. 2012;199:359–376.
    1. Stephens RL, Ishikawa T, Weiner H, Novin D, Tache Y. TRH analogue, RX 77368, injected nto dorsal vagal complex stimulates gatric secretion in rats. Am J Physiol. 1988;254:G639–G643.
    1. Suzuki T, Sugiyama Y, Yates BJ. Integrative responses of neurons in parabrachial nuclei to a nauseogenic gastrointestinal stimulus and vestibular stimulation in vertical planes. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2012;302:R965–R975.
    1. Sved AF, Cano G, Passerin AM, Rabin BS. The locus coeruleus, Barrington’s nucleus, and neural circuits of stress. Physiol Behav. 2002;77:737–742.
    1. Swanson LW. The locus coeruleus: A cytoarchitectonic, Golgi and immunohistochemical study in the albino rat. Brain Res. 1976;110:39–56.
    1. Swanson LW, Petrovich GD. What is the amygdala? Trends Neurosci. 1998;21:323–331.
    1. Swanson LW, Sawchenko PE. Hypothalamic integration: Organization of the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei. Annu Rev Neurosci. 1983;6:269–324.
    1. Swett JE, McMahon SB, Wall PD. Long ascending projections to the midbrain from cells of lamina I and nucleus of the dorsolateral funiculus of the rat spinal cord. J Comp Neurol. 1985;238:401–416.
    1. Tache Y. Brainstem neuropeptides and vagal protection of the gastric mucosal against injury: Role of prostaglandins, nitric oxide and calcitonin-gene related peptide in capsaicin afferents. Curr Med Chem. 2012;19:35–42.
    1. Tache Y, Bonaz B. Corticotropin-releasing factor receptors and stress-related alterations of gut motor function. J Clin Invest. 2007;117:33–40.
    1. Tache Y, Martinez V, Wang L, Million M. CRF1 receptor signaling pathways are involved in stress-related alterations of colonic function and viscerosensitivity: Implications for irritable bowel syndrome. Br J Pharmacol. 2004;141:1321–1330.
    1. Tache Y, Monnikes H, Bonaz B, Rivier J. Role of CRF in stress-related alterations of gastric and colonic motor function. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1999;697:233–243.
    1. Tache Y, Vale W, Brown M. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone–CNS action to stimulate gastric acid secretion. Nature. 1980;287:149–151.
    1. Tache Y, Yang H, Kaneko H. Caudal raphe-dorsal vagal complex peptidergic projections: Role in gastric vagal control. Peptides. 1995;16:431–435.
    1. Tack J, Lee KJ. Pathophysiology and treatment of functional dyspepsia. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2005;39:S211–S216.
    1. Tack J, Talley NJ, Camilleri M, Holtmann G, Hu P, Malagelada JR, Stanghellini V. Functional gastroduodenal disorders. Gastroenterology. 2006;130:1466–1479.
    1. Tack JF, Wood JD. Actions of noradrenaline on myenteric neurons in the guinea pig gastric antrum. J Auton Nerv Syst. 1992;41:67–77.
    1. Takeuchi Y, Matsushima S, Matsushima R, Hopkins DA. Direct amygdaloid projections to the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve: A light and electron microscopic study in the rat. Brain Res. 1983;280:143–147.
    1. Tebbe JJ, Dietze T, Grote C, Monnikes H. Excitatory stimulation of neurons in the arcuate nucleus inhibits gastric acid secretion via vagal pathways in anesthetized rats. Brain Res. 2001;913:10–17.
    1. Tebbe JJ, Mronga S, Schafer MK, Ruter J, Kobelt P, Monnikes H. Stimulation of neurons in rat ARC inhibits gastric acid secretion via hypothalamic CRF1/2- and NPY-Y1 receptors. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2003;285:G1075–G1083.
    1. Tebbe JJ, Pasat IR, Monnikes H, Ritter M, Kobelt P, Schafer MK. Excitatory stimulation of neurons in the arcuate nucleus initiates central CRF-dependent stimulation of colonic propulsion in rats. Brain Res. 2005;1036:130–138.
    1. Terreberry RR, Neafsey EJ. Rat medial frontal cortex: A visceral motor region with a direct projection to the solitary nucleus. Brain Res. 1983;278:245–249.
    1. Terreberry RR, Neafsey EJ. The rat medial frontal cortex projects directly to autonomic regions of the brainstem. Brain Res Bull. 1987;19:639–649.
    1. Thomas J. Opioid-induced bowel dysfunction. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2008;35:103–113.
    1. Thompson RH, Canteras NS, Swanson LW. Organization of projections from the dorsomedial nucleus of the hypothalamus: A PHA-L study in the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1996;376:143–173.
    1. Thor KB, Helke CJ. Serotonin- and substance P-containing projections to the nucleus tractus solitarii of the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1987;265:275–293.
    1. Thor KB, Helke CJ. Serotonin and substance P colocalization in medullary projections to the nucleus tractus solitarius: Dual-colour immunohistochemistry combined with retrograde tracing. J Chem Neuroanat. 1989;2:139–148.
    1. Thorens B. Glucagon-like peptide-1 and control of insulin secretion. Diabete Metab. 1995;21:311–318.
    1. Thumshirn M. Pathophysiology of functional dyspepsia. Gut. 2002;51(Suppl 1):i63–i66.
    1. Tong M, Qualls-Creekmore E, Browning KN, Travagli RA, Holmes GM. Experimental spinal cord injury in rats diminishes vagally-mediated gastric responses to cholecystokinin-8s. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2011;23:e69–e79.
    1. Torvik A. Afferent connections to the sensory trigeminal nuclei, the nucleus of the solitary tract and adjacent structures; an experimental study in the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1956;106:51–141.
    1. Tougas G, Wang L. Pseudoaffective cardioautonomic responses to gastric distension in rats. Am J Physiol. 1999;277:R272–R278.
    1. Tracey KJ. The inflammatory reflex. Nature. 2002;420:853–859.
    1. Tracey KJ. Physiology and immunology of the cholinergic antiinflammatory pathway. J Clin Invest. 2007;117:289–296.
    1. Tran L, Greenwood-Van Meerveld B. Altered expression of glucocorticoid receptor and corticotropin-releasing factor in the central amygdala in response to elevated corticosterone. Behav Brain Res. 2012;234:380–385.
    1. Tran L, Wiskur B, Greenwood-Van Meerveld B. The role of the anterio-lateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis in stress-induced nociception. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2012;302:G1301–G1309.
    1. Trapp S, Ballanyi K. KATP channel mediation of anoxia-induced outward current in rat dorsal vagal neurons in vitro. J Physiol. 1995;487:37–50.
    1. Trapp S, Ballanyi K, Richter DW. Spontaneous activation of KATP current in rat dorsal vagal neurones. Neuroreport. 1994;5:1285–1288.
    1. Trapp S, Richards JE. The gut hormone glucagon-like peptide-1 produced in brain: Is this physiologically relevant? Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2013;13:964–969.
    1. Traub RJ, Lim F, Sengupta JN, Meller ST, Gebhart GF. Noxious distention of viscera results in differential c-Fos expression in second order sensory neurons receiving ‘sympathetic’ or ‘parasympathetic’ input. Neurosci Lett. 1994;180:71–75.
    1. Traub RJ, Sengupta JN, Gebhart GF. Differential c-fos expression in the nucleus of the solitary tract and spinal cord following noxious gastric distention in the rat. Neurosci. 1996;74:873–884.
    1. Traub RJ, Silva E, Gebhart GF, Solodkin A. Noxious colorectal distention induced-c-Fos protein in limbic brain structures in the rat. Neurosci Lett. 1996;215:165–168.
    1. Travagli RA, Dunwiddie TV, Williams JT. Opioid inhibition in locus coeruleus. J Neurophysiol. 1995;74:519–528.
    1. Travagli RA, Gillis RA. Hyperpolarization-activated currents Ih and IKIR in rat dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus neurons, in vitro. J Neurophysiol. 1994;71:1308–1317.
    1. Travagli RA, Gillis RA. Effect of 5-HT alone and its interaction with TRH on neurons in rat dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. Am J Physiol. 1995;263:G292–G299.
    1. Travagli RA, Gillis RA, Rossiter CD, Vicini S. Glutamate and GABA-mediated synaptic currents in neurons of the rat dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. Am J Physiol. 1991;260:G531–G536.
    1. Travagli RA, Gillis RA, Vicini S. Effects of thyrotropin-releasing hormone on neurons in rat dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus, in vitro. Am J Physiol. 1992;263:G508–G517.
    1. Travagli RA, Hermann GE, Browning KN, Rogers RC. Musings on the wanderer: What’s new in our understanding of vago-vagal reflexes? III. Activity-dependent plasticity in vago-vagal reflexes controlling the stomach. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2003;284:G180–G187.
    1. Travagli RA, Hermann GE, Browning KN, Rogers RC. Brainstem circuits regulating gastric function. Annu Rev Physiol. 2006;68:279–305.
    1. Troncon LE, Thompson DG, Ahluwalia NK, Barlow J, Heggie L. Relations between upper abdominal symptoms and gastric distension abnormalities in dysmotility like functional dyspepsia and after vagotomy. Gut. 1995;37:17–22.
    1. Tsukamoto K, Nakade Y, Mantyh C, Ludwig K, Pappas TN, Takahashi T. Peripherally administered CRF stimulates colonic motility via central CRF receptors and vagal pathways in conscious rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2006;290:R1537–R1541.
    1. Turton MD, O’Shea D, Gunn I, Beak SA, Edwards CM, Meeran K, Choi SJ, Taylor GM, Heath MM, Lambert PD, Wilding JP, Smith DM, Ghatei MA, Herbert J, Bloom SR. A role for glucagon-like peptide-1 in the central regulation of feeding. Nature. 1996;379:69–72.
    1. Vacca G, Mary DA, Vono P. The effect of distension of the stomach on coronary blood flow in anaesthetized pigs. Pflugers Arch. 1994;428:127–133.
    1. Vacca G, Vono P. The primary reflex effects of distension of the stomach on heart rate, arterial pressure and left ventricular contractility in the anaesthetized pig. Pflugers Arch. 1993;425:248–255.
    1. Valentino RJ, Miselis RR, Pavcovich LA. Pontine regulation of pelvic viscera: Pharmacological target for pelvic visceral dysfunctions. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 1999;20:253–260.
    1. Valentino RJ, Page ME, Luppi PH, Zhu Y, Van BE, Aston-Jones G. Evidence for widespread afferents to Barrington’s nucleus, a brainstem region rich in corticotropin-releasing hormone neurons. Neuroscience. 1994;62:125–143.
    1. Valentino RJ, Pavcovich LA, Hirata H. Evidence for corticotropin-releasing hormone projections from Barrington’s nucleus to the periaqueductal gray and dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus in the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1995;363:402–422.
    1. Valentino RJ, Van Bockstaele E. Convergent regulation of locus coeruleus activity as an adaptive response to stress. Eur J Pharmacol. 2008;583:194–203.
    1. Van Bockstaele EJ, Aston-Jones G. Distinct populations of neurons in the ventromedial periaqueductal gray project to the rostral ventral medulla and abducens nucleus. Brain Res. 1992;576:59–67.
    1. Van Bockstaele EJ, Peoples J, Telegan P. Efferent projections of the nucleus of the solitary tract to peri-locus coeruleus dendrites in rat brain: Evidence for a monosynaptic pathway. J Comp Neurol. 1999;412:410–428.
    1. van der Kooy D, Koda LY, McGinty JF, Gerfen CR, Bloom FE. The organization of projections from the cortex, amygdala, and hypothalamus to the nucleus of the solitary tract in rat. J Comp Neurol. 1984;224:1–24.
    1. van der Kooy D, McGinty JF, Koda LY, Gerfen CR, Bloom FE. Visceral cortex: A direct connection from prefrontal cortex to the solitary nucleus in rat. Neurosci Lett. 1982;33:123–127.
    1. Van Dijk G, Thiele TE, Donahey JC, Campfield LA, Smith FJ, Burn P, Bernstein IL, Woods SC, Seeley RJ. Central infusions of leptin and GLP-1-(7-36) amide differentially stimulate c-FLI in the rat brain. Am J Physiol. 1996;271:R1096–R1100.
    1. Van Oudenhove L, Demyttenaere K, Tack J, Aziz Q. Central nervous system involvement in functional gastrointestinal disorders. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2004;18:663–680.
    1. Vanner S, MacNaughton WK. Submucosal secretomotor and vasodilator reflexes. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2004;16(Suppl 1):39–43.
    1. Vanner S, Surprenant A. Neural reflexes controlling intestinal microcirculation. Am J Physiol. 1996;271:G223–G230.
    1. Veening JG, Swanson LW, Sawchenko PE. The organization of projections from the central nucleus of the amygdala to brainstem sites involved in central autonomic regulation: A combined retrograde transport-immunohistochemical study. Brain Res. 1984;303:337–357.
    1. Venkova K, Krier J. A nitric oxide and prostaglandin-dependent component of NANC off-contractions in cat colon. Am J Physiol. 1994;266:G40–G47.
    1. Ventura-Silva AP, Melo A, Ferreira AC, Carvalho MM, Campos FL, Sousa N, Pego JM. Excitotoxic lesions in the central nucleus of the amygdala attenuate stress-induced anxiety behavior. Front Behav Neurosci. 2013;7:32.
    1. Ventura-Silva AP, Pego JM, Sousa JC, Marques AR, Rodrigues AJ, Marques F, Cerqueira JJ, Almeida OF, Sousa N. Stress shifts the response of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis to an anxiogenic mode. Eur J Neurosci. 2012;36:3396–3406.
    1. Verberne AJ, Saita M, Sartor DM. Chemical stimulation of vagal afferent neurons and sympathetic vasomotor tone. Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 2003;41:288–305.
    1. Viltart O, Sartor DM, Verberne AJ. Chemical stimulation of visceral afferents activates medullary neurones projecting to the central amygdala and periaqueductal grey. Brain Res Bull. 2006;71:51–59.
    1. Vincent KM, Sharp JW, Raybould HE. Intestinal glucose-induced calcium-calmodulin kinase signaling in the gutbrain axis in awake rats. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2011;23:e282–e293.
    1. Vizi ES, Knoll J. The effects of sympathetic nerve stimulation and guanethidine on parasympathetic neuroeffector transmission; the inhibition of acetylcholine release. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1971;23:918–925.
    1. Vizzard MA, Brisson M, De Groat WC. Transneuronal labeling of neurons in the adult rat central nervous system following inoculation of pseudorabies virus into the colon. Cell Tissue Res. 2000;299:9–26.
    1. Walter GC, Phillips RJ, Baronowsky EA, Powley TL. Versatile, high-resolution anterograde labeling of vagal efferent projections with dextran amines. J Neurosci Methods. 2009;178:1–9.
    1. Wan S, Browning KN. D-Glucose modulates synaptic transmission from the central terminals of vagal afferent fibers. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2008;294:G757–G763.
    1. Wan S, Browning KN. Glucose increases synaptic transmission from vagal afferent central nerve terminals via modulation of 5HT3 receptors. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2008;295:G1050–G1057.
    1. Wan S, Browning KN, Travagli RA. Glucagon-like peptide-1 modulates synaptic transmission to identified pancreas-projecting vagal motoneurons. Peptides. 2007;28:2184–2191.
    1. Wang SC, Borison HL. The vomiting center; a critical experimental analysis. Arch Neurol Psychiatry. 1950;63:928–941.
    1. Wang XY, Huizinga JD, Diamond J, Liu LW. Loss of intramuscular and submuscular interstitial cells of Cajal and associated enteric nerves is related to decreased gastric emptying in streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2009;21:1095–1e92.
    1. Wang Y, Jones JFX, Ramage AG, Jordan D. Effects of 5-HT and 5-HT1A receptor agonists and antagonists on dorsal vagal preganglionic neurones in anaesthetized rats: An ionophoretic study. Br J Pharmacol. 1995;116:2291–2297.
    1. Wang Z, Ocampo MA, Pang RD, Bota M, Bradesi S, Mayer EA, Holschneider DP. Alterations in prefrontal-limbic functional activation and connectivity in chronic stress-induced visceral hyperalgesia. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e59138.
    1. Westlund KN, Coulter JD. Descending projections of the locus coeruleus and subcoeruleus/medial parabrachial nuclei in monkey: Axonal transport studies and dopamine-beta-hydroxylase immunocytochemistry. Brain Res. 1980;2:235–264.
    1. White RL, Jr, Rossiter CD, Hornby PJ, Harmon JW, Kasbekar DK, Gillis RA. Excitation of neurons in the medullary raphe increases gastric acid and pepsin production in cats. Am J Physiol. 1991;260:G91–G96.
    1. Williams DL, Hyvarinen N, Lilly N, Kay K, Dossat A, Parise E, Torregrossa AM. Maintenance on a high-fat diet impairs the anorexic response to glucagon-like-peptide-1 receptor activation. Physiol Behav. 2011;103:557–564.
    1. Williams JT, Bobker DH, Harris GC. Synaptic potentials in locus coeruleus neurons in brain slices. Prog Brain Res. 1991;88:167–172.
    1. Williams JT, Egan TM, North RA. Enkephalin opens potassium channels on mammalian central neurons. Nature. 1982;299:74–77.
    1. Williams JT, North RA, Tokimasa T. Inward rectification of resting and opiate-activated potassium currents in rat locus coeruleus neurons. J Neurosci. 1988;8:4299–4306.
    1. Wright RD, Jennings MA, Florey HW, Lium R. The influence of nerves an drugs on secretion by the small intestine and an investigation of the enzymes in intestinal juice. Q J Exp Physiol. 1940;30:73–120.
    1. Yagihashi S, Sima AA. Diabetic autonomic neuropathy in BB rat. Ultrastructural and morphometric changes in parasympathetic nerves. Diabetes. 1986;35:733–743.
    1. Yasui Y, Breder CD, Saper CB, Cechetto DF. Autonomic responses and efferent pathways from the insular cortex in the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1991;303:355–374.
    1. Yettefti K, Orsini JC, El Ouazzain T, Himmi T, Boyer A, Perrin J. Sensitivity of the nucleus tractus solitarius neurons to induced moderate hyperglycemia, with special reference to catecholaminergic regions. JANS. 1995;51:191–197.
    1. Yettefti K, Orsini J-C, Perrin J. Characteristics of glycemia-sensitive neurons in the nucleus tractus solitarii: Possible involvement in nutritional regulation. Physiol Behav. 1997;61:93–100.
    1. Yoneda S, Kadowaki M, Kuramoto H, Fukui H, Takaki M. Enhanced colonic peristalsis by impairment of nitrergic enteric neurons in spontaneously diabetic rats. Auton Neurosci. 2001;92:65–71.
    1. Young RL, Cooper NJ, Blackshaw LA. Anatomy and function of group III metabotropic glutamate receptors in gastric vagal pathways. Neuropharmacology. 2008;54:965–975.
    1. Zheng J, Babygirija R, Bulbul M, Cerjak D, Ludwig K, Takahashi T. Hypothalamic oxytocin mediates adaptation mechanism against chronic stress in rats. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2010;299:G946–G953.
    1. Zheng J, Dobner A, Babygirija R, Ludwig K, Takahashi T. Effects of repeated restraint stress on gastric motility in rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2009;296:R1358–R1365.
    1. Zheng Z, Lewis MW, Travagli RA. In vitro analysis of the effects of cholecystokinin on rat brain stem motoneurons. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2005;288:G1066–G1073.
    1. Zheng Z, Travagli RA. Dopamine effects on identified rat vagal motoneurons. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2007;292:G1002–G1008.
    1. Zheng ZL, Rogers RC, Travagli RA. Selective gastric projections of nitric oxide synthase-containing vagal brainstem neurons. Neurosci. 1999;90:685–694.
    1. Zhou SY, Lu YX, Owyang C. Gastric relaxation induced by hyperglycemia is mediated by vagal afferent pathways in the rat. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2008;294:G1158–G1164.
    1. Zhu JN, Wang JJ. The cerebellum in feeding control: Possible function and mechanism. Cell Mol Neurobiol. 2008;28:469–478.
    1. Zhu JX, Wu XY, Owyang C, Li Y. Intestinal serotonin acts as a paracrine substance to mediate vagal signal transmission evoked by luminal factors in the rat. J Physiol. 2001;530:431–442.
    1. Zittel TT, De GR, Sternini C, Raybould HE. Fos protein expression in the nucleus of the solitary tract in response to intestinal nutrients in awake rats. Brain Res. 1994;663:266–270.
    1. Zsombok A, Bhaskaran MD, Gao H, Derbenev AV, Smith BN. Functional plasticity of central TRPV1 receptors in brainstem dorsal vagal complex circuits of streptozotocin-treated hyperglycemic mice. J Neurosci. 2011;31:14024–14031.
    1. Zsombok A, Smith BN. Plasticity of central autonomic neural circuits in diabetes. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2009;1792:423–431.

Source: PubMed

Szponzorok és közreműködők

Egészségi állapot

Kábítószer-beavatkozások

3
Iratkozz fel