Fundamentals of glycogen metabolism for coaches and athletes

Bob Murray, Christine Rosenbloom, Bob Murray, Christine Rosenbloom

Abstract

The ability of athletes to train day after day depends in large part on adequate restoration of muscle glycogen stores, a process that requires the consumption of sufficient dietary carbohydrates and ample time. Providing effective guidance to athletes and others wishing to enhance training adaptations and improve performance requires an understanding of the normal variations in muscle glycogen content in response to training and diet; the time required for adequate restoration of glycogen stores; the influence of the amount, type, and timing of carbohydrate intake on glycogen resynthesis; and the impact of other nutrients on glycogenesis. This review highlights the practical implications of the latest research related to glycogen metabolism in physically active individuals to help sports dietitians, coaches, personal trainers, and other sports health professionals gain a fundamental understanding of glycogen metabolism, as well as related practical applications for enhancing training adaptations and preparing for competition.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Depiction of glycogen, a large spherical particle formed by linking glucose molecules into strands and branches.
Figure 2
Figure 2
The intracellular locations of skeletal muscle glycogen. Image © Human Kinetics. Used with permission. Values for glycogen distribution are from Schweitzer et al (2017).
Figure 3
Figure 3
A simplified overview of glycogen metabolism at rest and during exercise. The sarcolemma separates the muscle cell interior from the interstitial fluid that surrounds the cell. At rest (left side), the consumption of carbohydrate stimulates the release of insulin from the pancreas. Insulin molecules bind to insulin receptors embedded in the sarcolemma. That binding sparks a cascade of intracellular responses that result in the movement of GLUT4 glucose transporters from the interior of the muscle cell into the sarcolemma, allowing for glucose to move into the cell. Once inside the muscle cell, glucose molecules are readied for inclusion into glycogen. Glycogenin is an enzyme that forms the center of glycogen particles, allowing for the initial formation of glycogen strands. During exercise (right side), GLUT4 transporters move into the sarcolemma without the assistance of insulin, aiding in glucose uptake into the cell. Simultaneously, glycogen degradation increases in response to changes in the concentration of metabolites inside the cell. The glucose molecules from the blood and those released from glycogen are oxidized to produce the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules required to sustain muscle contraction.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Muscle glycogen levels can vary widely during training, only reaching supercompensated levels after a few days of rest and light training. In this example, muscle glycogen levels decline during training sessions and are partially restored during subsequent rest and after adequate carbohydrate intake. During hard 2-a-day training sessions (day 3), glycogen concentration can be lowered to the point at which contractile dysfunction (fatigue) occurs. Athletes typically train with muscle glycogen stores that are adequate to meet the demands of training (eg, between 75 and 150 mmol/kg wet weight) even though those stores might be considered suboptimal. Illustration based on data from Sherman and Wimer (1991).

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