Cognitive impairment and memory dysfunction after a stroke diagnosis: a post-stroke memory assessment

Noor Kamal Al-Qazzaz, Sawal Hamid Ali, Siti Anom Ahmad, Shabiul Islam, Khairiyah Mohamad, Noor Kamal Al-Qazzaz, Sawal Hamid Ali, Siti Anom Ahmad, Shabiul Islam, Khairiyah Mohamad

Abstract

Cognitive impairment and memory dysfunction following stroke diagnosis are common symptoms that significantly affect the survivors' quality of life. Stroke patients have a high potential to develop dementia within the first year of stroke onset. Currently, efforts are being exerted to assess stroke effects on the brain, particularly in the early stages. Numerous neuropsychological assessments are being used to evaluate and differentiate cognitive impairment and dementia following stroke. This article focuses on the role of available neuropsychological assessments in detection of dementia and memory loss after stroke. This review starts with stroke types and risk factors associated with dementia development, followed by a brief description of stroke diagnosis criteria and the effects of stroke on the brain that lead to cognitive impairment and end with memory loss. This review aims to combine available neuropsychological assessments to develop a post-stroke memory assessment (PSMA) scheme based on the most recognized and available studies. The proposed PSMA is expected to assess different types of memory functionalities that are related to different parts of the brain according to stroke location. An optimal therapeutic program that would help stroke patients enjoy additional years with higher quality of life is presented.

Keywords: dementia; memory; neuropsychological assessment; vascular dementia.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Risk factors and dementia.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Clinical evaluation. Abbreviations: CT, computed tomography; ECG, electrocardiography; EEG, electroencephalography; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Core and penumbra after stroke. Note: Reprinted from Journal of Radiology Nursing, 30(3), Summers D, Malloy R, CT and MR imaging in the acute ischemic stroke patient: a nursing perspective,104–115, Copyright 2011, with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Block diagram of vascular cognitive impairment spectrum. Abbreviations: AD, Alzheimer’s disease; CVD, cerebral vascular disease; MCI, mild cognitive impairment; PSD, post-stroke dementia; VaD, vascular dementia; VCI, vascular cognitive impairment.

References

    1. Cullen B, O’Neill B, Evans JJ, Coen RF, Lawlor BA. A review of screening tests for cognitive impairment. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2007;78(8):790–799.
    1. Leys D, Hénon H, Mackowiak-Cordoliani M-A, Pasquier F. Poststroke dementia. Lancet Neurol. 2005;4(11):752–759.
    1. Cumming TB, Marshall RS, Lazar RM. Stroke, cognitive deficits, and rehabilitation: still an incomplete picture. Int J Stroke. 2013;8(1):38–45.
    1. Mohr JP. Stroke: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management. Elsevier Health Sciences; 2004.
    1. Sahathevan R, Brodtmann A, Donnan GA. Dementia, stroke, and vascular risk factors: a review. Int J Stroke. 2012;7(1):61–73.
    1. Iemolo F, Duro G, Rizzo C, Castiglia L, Hachinski V, Caruso C. Pathophysiology of vascular dementia. Immun Ageing. 2009;6(1):13.
    1. Sibolt G, Curtze S, Melkas S, et al. Poststroke dementia is associated with recurrent ischaemic stroke. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2013;84(7):722–726.
    1. Brott T, Adams H, Olinger CP, et al. Measurements of acute cerebral infarction: a clinical examination scale. Stroke. 1989;20(7):864–870.
    1. Demarin V, Zavoreo I, Kes VB. Carotid artery disease and cognitive impairment. J Neurol Sci. 2012;322(1–2):107–111.
    1. Sacco RL, Adams R, Albers G, et al. American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Council on Stroke. Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention. American Academy of Neurology Guidelines for prevention of stroke in patients with ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Council on Stroke: co-sponsored by the Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention: the American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline. Circulation. 2006;113(10):e409–e449.
    1. Foreman B, Claassen J. Quantitative EEG for the detection of brain ischemia. Crit Care. 2012;16(2):216.
    1. Donovan NJ, Kendall DL, Heaton SC, Kwon S, Velozo CA, Duncan PW. Conceptualizing functional cognition in stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2008;22(2):122–135.
    1. Borson S, Frank L, Bayley PJ, et al. Improving dementia care: the role of screening and detection of cognitive impairment. Alzheimers Dement. 2013;9(2):151–159.
    1. Snaphaan L, de Leeuw F-E. Poststroke memory function in nondemented patients: a systematic review on frequency and neuroimaging correlates. Stroke. 2007;38(1):198–203.
    1. McVeigh C, Passmore P. Vascular dementia: prevention and treatment. Clin Interv Aging. 2006;1(3):229.
    1. Ruitenberg A, Ott A, van Swieten JC, Hofman A, Breteler MM. Incidence of dementia: does gender make a difference? Neurobiol Aging. 2001;22:575–580.
    1. Jacova C, Kertesz A, Blair M, Fisk JD, Feldman HH. Neuropsychological testing and assessment for dementia. Alzheimer Dement. 2007;3(4):299–317.
    1. Korczyn AD, Vakhapova V, Grinberg LT. Vascular dementia. J Neurol Sci. 2012;322(1–2):2–10.
    1. Ankolekar S, Geeganage C, Anderton P, Hogg C, Bath PM. Clinical trials for preventing post stroke cognitive impairment. J Neurol Sci. 2010;299(1–2):168–174.
    1. Winblad B, Palmer K, Kivipelto M, et al. Mild cognitive impairment – beyond controversies, towards a consensus: report of the International Working Group on Mild Cognitive Impairment. J Intern Med. 2004;256(3):240–246.
    1. Andrade C, Radhakrishnan R. The prevention and treatment of cognitive decline and dementia: an overview of recent research on experimental treatments. Indian J Psychiatry. 2009;51(1):12–25.
    1. Sheng B, Cheng LF, Law CB, Li HL, Yeung KM, Lau KK. Coexisting cerebral infarction in Alzheimer’s disease is associated with fast dementia progression: applying the National Institute for Neurological Disorders and Stroke/Association Internationale pour la Recherche et l’Enseignement en Neurosciences Neuroimaging Criteria in Alzheimer’s Disease with Concomitant Cerebral Infarction. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2007;55(6):918–922.
    1. Jack CR, Jr, Albert M, Knopman DS, et al. Introduction to revised criteria for the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease: National Institute on Aging and the Alzheimer Association workgroups. Alzheimers Dement. 2011;7(3):257–262.
    1. Albert MS, DeKosky ST, Dickson D, et al. The diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer’s disease: recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2011;7(3):270–279.
    1. McKhann GM, Knopman DS, Chertkow H, et al. The diagnosis of dementia due to Alzheimer’s disease: Recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2011;7(3):263–269.
    1. Sperling RA, Aisen PS, Beckett LA, et al. Toward defining the preclinical stages of Alzheimer’s disease: recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2011;7(3):280–292.
    1. Association AP. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. fourth edition. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.
    1. Hughes CP, Berg L, Danziger WL, Coben LA, Martin RL. A new clinical scale for the staging of dementia. Br J Psychiatry. 1982;140(6):566–572.
    1. Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR. Mini-mental state. A prac-32. 1998
    1. D’Esposito M. Chapter 11 Working memory. In: Goldenberg G, Miller BL, editors. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol. 88. Elsevier; 2008. pp. 237–247.
    1. Buckner RL. Memory and executive function in aging and AD: multiple factors that cause decline and reserve factors that compensate. Neuron. 2004;44(1):195–208.
    1. Lim C, Alexander MP. Stroke and episodic memory disorders. Neuropsychologia. 2009;47(14):3045–3058.
    1. Snaphaan L, Rijpkema M, van Uden I, Fernandez G, de Leeuw FE. Reduced medial temporal lobe functionality in stroke patients: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Brain. 2009;132(Pt 7):1882–1888.
    1. Planton M, Peiffer S, Albucher JF, et al. Neuropsychological outcome after a first symptomatic ischaemic stroke with “good recovery”. Eur J Neurol. 2012;19(2):212–219.
    1. Cooper S, Greene JD. The clinical assessment of the patient with early dementia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005;76(Suppl 5):v15–v24.
    1. Pasquier F. Early diagnosis of dementia: neuropsychology. J Neurol. 1999;246(1):6–15.
    1. Smith T, Gildeh N, Holmes C. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment: validity and utility in a memory clinic setting. Can J Psychiatry. 2007;52(5):329–332.
    1. Mathuranath P, Nestor P, Berrios G, Rakowicz W, Hodges J. A brief cognitive test battery to differentiate Alzheimer’s disease and frontotemporal dementia. Neurology. 2000;55(11):1613–1620.
    1. Amodio P, Wenin H, Del Piccolo F, et al. Variability of trail making test, symbol digit test and line trait test in normal people. A normative study taking into account age-dependent decline and sociobiological variables. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2002;14(2):117–131.
    1. Shulman KI. Clock-drawing: is it the ideal cognitive screening test? Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2000;15(6):548–561.
    1. Caffarra P, Vezzadini G, Dieci F, Zonato F, Venneri A. Rey-Osterrieth complex figure: normative values in an Italian population sample. Neurol Sci. 2002;22(6):443–447.
    1. Carlesimo G, Caltagirone C, Gainotti G, et al. The Mental Deterioration Battery: normative data, diagnostic reliability and qualitative analyses of cognitive impairment. Eur Neurol. 1996;36(6):378–384.
    1. Dubois B, Slachevsky A, Litvan I, Pillon B. The FAB: a frontal assessment battery at bedside. Neurology. 2000;55(11):1621–1626.
    1. Roth M. CAMDEX-R: the Cambridge examination for mental disorders of the elderly. Cambridge University Press; 1998.
    1. Wechsler D. Wechsler Memory Scale – Revised. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation; 1987.
    1. Wechsler D. Wechsler memory scale. New York: Psychological Corporation; 1945.
    1. Osterrieth PA. Le test de copie d’une figure complexe. Arch Psychol. 1944;30:206–356.
    1. Wilson BA, Cockburn J, Baddeley AD. The Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test. Suffolk, UK: Thames Valley Test Company; 1991.
    1. Pendlebury ST, Mariz J, Bull L, Mehta Z, Rothwell PM. MoCA, ACE-R, and MMSE Versus the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke – Canadian Stroke Network Vascular Cognitive Impairment Harmonization Standards Neuropsychological Battery After TIA and Stroke. Stroke. 2012;43(2):464–469.
    1. Bagnoli S, Failli Y, Piaceri I, et al. Suitability of neuropsychological tests in patients with vascular dementia (VaD) J Neurol Sci. 2012;322(1–2):41–45.
    1. Moulaert VR, Verbunt JA, van Heugten CM, Wade DT. Cognitive impairments in survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: a systematic review. Resuscitation. 2009;80(3):297–305.
    1. Cao M, Ferrari M, Patella R, Marra C, Rasura M. Neuropsychological findings in young-adult stroke patients. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2007;22(2):133–142.
    1. Sikaroodi H, Yadegari S, Miri SR. Cognitive impairments in patients with cerebrovascular risk factors: a comparison of Mini Mental Status Exam and Montreal Cognitive Assessment. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2013;115(8):1276–1280.
    1. Kandiah N, Wiryasaputra L, Narasimhalu K, et al. Frontal subcortical ischemia is crucial for post stroke cognitive impairment. J Neurol Sci. 2011;309(1–2):92–95.
    1. Bagnoli S, Failli Y, Piaceri I, et al. Suitability of neuropsychological tests in patients with vascular dementia (VaD) J Neurol Sci. 2012;322(1):41–45.
    1. Summers D, Malloy R. CT and MR imaging in the acute ischemic stroke patient: a nursing perspective. J Radiol Nurs. 2011;30(3):104–115.

Source: PubMed

Sponsorer og samarbeidspartnere

Medisinsk tilstand

Legemiddelintervensjoner

3
Abonnere