Techniques of monitoring blood glucose during pregnancy for women with pre-existing diabetes
Foong Ming Moy, Amita Ray, Brian S Buckley, Helen M West, Foong Ming Moy, Amita Ray, Brian S Buckley, Helen M West
Abstract
Background: Self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) is recommended as a key component of the management plan for diabetes therapy during pregnancy. No existing systematic reviews consider the benefits/effectiveness of various techniques of blood glucose monitoring on maternal and infant outcomes among pregnant women with pre-existing diabetes. The effectiveness of the various monitoring techniques is unclear.
Objectives: To compare techniques of blood glucose monitoring and their impact on maternal and infant outcomes among pregnant women with pre-existing diabetes.
Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group's Trials Register (30 November 2016), searched reference lists of retrieved studies and contacted trial authors.
Selection criteria: Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-RCTs comparing techniques of blood glucose monitoring including SMBG, continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) or clinic monitoring among pregnant women with pre-existing diabetes mellitus (type 1 or type 2). Trials investigating timing and frequency of monitoring were also included. RCTs using a cluster-randomised design were eligible for inclusion but none were identified.
Data collection and analysis: Two review authors independently assessed study eligibility, extracted data and assessed the risk of bias of included studies. Data were checked for accuracy. The quality of the evidence was assessed using the GRADE approach.
Main results: This review update includes at total of 10 trials (538) women (468 women with type 1 diabetes and 70 women with type 2 diabetes). The trials took place in Europe and the USA. Five of the 10 included studies were at moderate risk of bias, four studies were at low to moderate risk of bias, and one study was at high risk of bias. The trials are too small to show differences in important outcomes such as macrosomia, preterm birth, miscarriage or death of baby. Almost all the reported GRADE outcomes were assessed as being very low-quality evidence. This was due to design limitations in the studies, wide confidence intervals, small sample sizes, and few events. In addition, there was high heterogeneity for some outcomes.Various methods of glucose monitoring were compared in the trials. Neither pooled analyses nor individual trial analyses showed any clear advantages of one monitoring technique over another for primary and secondary outcomes. Many important outcomes were not reported.1. Self-monitoring versus standard care (two studies, 43 women): there was no clear difference for caesarean section (risk ratio (RR) 0.78, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.40 to 1.49; one study, 28 women) or glycaemic control (both very low-quality), and not enough evidence to assess perinatal mortality and neonatal mortality and morbidity composite. Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, large-for-gestational age, neurosensory disability, and preterm birth were not reported in either study.2. Self-monitoring versus hospitalisation (one study, 100 women): there was no clear difference for hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (pre-eclampsia and hypertension) (RR 4.26, 95% CI 0.52 to 35.16; very low-quality: RR 0.43, 95% CI 0.08 to 2.22; very low-quality). There was no clear difference in caesarean section or preterm birth less than 37 weeks' gestation (both very low quality), and the sample size was too small to assess perinatal mortality (very low-quality). Large-for-gestational age, mortality or morbidity composite, neurosensory disability and preterm birth less than 34 weeks were not reported.3. Pre-prandial versus post-prandial glucose monitoring (one study, 61 women): there was no clear difference between groups for caesarean section (RR 1.45, 95% CI 0.92 to 2.28; very low-quality), large-for-gestational age (RR 1.16, 95% CI 0.73 to 1.85; very low-quality) or glycaemic control (very low-quality). The results for hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: pre-eclampsia and perinatal mortality are not meaningful because these outcomes were too rare to show differences in a small sample (all very low-quality). The study did not report the outcomes mortality or morbidity composite, neurosensory disability or preterm birth.4. Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional system (three studies, 84 women): there was no clear difference for caesarean section (RR 0.96, 95% CI 0.62 to 1.48; one study, 32 women; very low-quality), and mortality or morbidity composite in the one study that reported these outcomes. There were no clear differences for glycaemic control (very low-quality). No studies reported hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, large-for-gestational age, perinatal mortality (stillbirth and neonatal mortality), neurosensory disability or preterm birth.5.CGM versus intermittent monitoring (two studies, 225 women): there was no clear difference for pre-eclampsia (RR 1.37, 95% CI 0.52 to 3.59; low-quality), caesarean section (average RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.65 to 1.54; I² = 62%; very low-quality) and large-for-gestational age (average RR 0.89, 95% CI 0.41 to 1.92; I² = 82%; very low-quality). Glycaemic control indicated by mean maternal HbA1c was lower for women in the continuous monitoring group (mean difference (MD) -0.60 %, 95% CI -0.91 to -0.29; one study, 71 women; moderate-quality). There was not enough evidence to assess perinatal mortality and there were no clear differences for preterm birth less than 37 weeks' gestation (low-quality). Mortality or morbidity composite, neurosensory disability and preterm birth less than 34 weeks were not reported.6. Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM (one study, 25 women): there was no clear difference between groups for caesarean section (RR 0.77, 95% CI 0.33 to 1.79; very low-quality), glycaemic control (mean blood glucose in the 3rd trimester) (MD -0.14 mmol/L, 95% CI -2.00 to 1.72; very low-quality) or preterm birth less than 37 weeks' gestation (RR 1.08, 95% CI 0.08 to 15.46; very low-quality). Other primary (hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, large-for-gestational age, perinatal mortality (stillbirth and neonatal mortality), mortality or morbidity composite, and neurosensory disability) or GRADE outcomes (preterm birth less than 34 weeks' gestation) were not reported.
Authors' conclusions: This review found no evidence that any glucose monitoring technique is superior to any other technique among pregnant women with pre-existing type 1 or type 2 diabetes. The evidence base for the effectiveness of monitoring techniques is weak and additional evidence from large well-designed randomised trials is required to inform choices of glucose monitoring techniques.
Conflict of interest statement
Foong Ming Moy: none declared.
Amita Ray: none declared.
Brian Buckley: none declared.
Helen West: was paid to work on Cochrane reviews by a grant to Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth. The views and opinions expressed therein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Systematic Reviews Programme, NIHR, NHS or the Department of Health.
Figures
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Analysis 2.7
Comparison 2 Self‐monitoring versus hospitalisation,…
Analysis 2.7
Comparison 2 Self‐monitoring versus hospitalisation, Outcome 7 Respiratory distress syndrome.
Analysis 2.8
Comparison 2 Self‐monitoring versus hospitalisation,…
Analysis 2.8
Comparison 2 Self‐monitoring versus hospitalisation, Outcome 8 Neonatal hypoglycaemia.
Analysis 2.9
Comparison 2 Self‐monitoring versus hospitalisation,…
Analysis 2.9
Comparison 2 Self‐monitoring versus hospitalisation, Outcome 9 Neonatal jaundice (hyperbilirubinaemia).
Analysis 2.10
Comparison 2 Self‐monitoring versus hospitalisation,…
Analysis 2.10
Comparison 2 Self‐monitoring versus hospitalisation, Outcome 10 Major anomalies.
Analysis 2.11
Comparison 2 Self‐monitoring versus hospitalisation,…
Analysis 2.11
Comparison 2 Self‐monitoring versus hospitalisation, Outcome 11 Antenatal hospital admission.
Analysis 2.12
Comparison 2 Self‐monitoring versus hospitalisation,…
Analysis 2.12
Comparison 2 Self‐monitoring versus hospitalisation, Outcome 12 Feeding difficulties (not pre‐specified).
Analysis 3.1
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.1
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 1 Pre‐eclampsia.
Analysis 3.2
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.2
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 2 Caesarean section.
Analysis 3.3
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.3
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 3 Large‐for‐gestational age.
Analysis 3.4
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.4
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 4 Perinatal mortality.
Analysis 3.5
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.5
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 5 Weight gain during pregnancy.
Analysis 3.6
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.6
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 6 Insulin dose.
Analysis 3.7
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.7
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 7 Glycaemic control ‐ Insulin…
Analysis 3.8
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.8
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 8 Glycaemic control ‐ HbA1c.
Analysis 3.9
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.9
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 9 Stillbirth.
Analysis 3.10
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.10
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 10 Gestational age at birth.
Analysis 3.11
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.11
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 11 Preterm birth
Analysis 3.12
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.12
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 12 Macrosomia.
Analysis 3.13
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.13
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 13 Birthweight.
Analysis 3.14
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.14
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 14 Adiposity ‐ Subscapula skinfold…
Analysis 3.15
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.15
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 15 Adiposity ‐ Triceps skinfold…
Analysis 3.16
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.16
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 16 Birth trauma (shoulder dystocia,…
Analysis 3.17
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.17
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 17 Respiratory distress syndrome.
Analysis 3.18
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.18
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 18 Neonatal hypoglycaemia.
Analysis 3.19
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.19
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 19 Neonatal jaundice (hyperbilirubinaemia).
Analysis 3.20
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.20
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 20 Cord IGF‐1.
Analysis 3.21
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.21
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 21 Neonatal glucose at age…
Analysis 3.22
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.22
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 22 Transient tachypnea (not pre‐specified).
Analysis 3.23
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.23
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 23 Neonatal intensive care admissions.
Analysis 4.1
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.1
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 1 Caesarean section.
Analysis 4.2
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.2
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 2 Neonatal morbidity composite.
Analysis 4.3
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.3
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 3 Weight gain during pregnancy…
Analysis 4.4
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.4
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 4 Use of additional insulin…
Analysis 4.5
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.5
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 5 Insulin requirement at end…
Analysis 4.6
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.6
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 6 Glycaemic control ‐ Maternal…
Analysis 4.7
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.7
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 7 Glycaemic control ‐ Maternal…
Analysis 4.8
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.8
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 8 Glycaemic control ‐ Maternal…
Analysis 4.9
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.9
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 9 Glycaemic control ‐ Maternal…
Analysis 4.10
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.10
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 10 Gestational age at birth.
Analysis 4.11
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.11
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 11 Macrosomia.
Analysis 4.12
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.12
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 12 Birthweight.
Analysis 5.1
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.1
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 1 Pre‐eclampsia.
Analysis 5.2
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.2
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 2 Caesarean section.
Analysis 5.3
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.3
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 3 Large‐for‐gestational age.
Analysis 5.4
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.4
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 4 Perinatal mortality.
Analysis 5.5
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.5
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 5 Glycaemic control…
Analysis 5.6
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.6
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 6 Miscarriage.
Analysis 5.7
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.7
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 7 Neonatal mortality.
Analysis 5.8
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.8
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 8 Gestational age…
Analysis 5.9
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.9
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 9 Preterm birth…
Analysis 5.10
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.10
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 10 Small‐for‐gestational age.
Analysis 5.11
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.11
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 11 Birthweight.
Analysis 5.12
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.12
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 12 Neonatal hypoglycaemia.
Analysis 5.13
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.13
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 13 Major anomalies.
Analysis 5.14
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.14
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 14 Neonatal intensive…
Analysis 6.1
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.1
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 1 Caesarean section.
Analysis 6.2
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.2
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 2 Weight gain during pregnancy.
Analysis 6.3
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.3
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 3 Insulin dosage, 3 rd…
Analysis 6.4
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.4
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 4 Glycaemic control ‐ Maternal…
Analysis 6.5
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.5
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 5 Glycaemic control ‐ Maternal…
Analysis 6.6
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.6
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 6 Glycaemic control ‐ Maternal…
Analysis 6.7
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.7
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 7 Glycaemic control ‐ Maternal…
Analysis 6.8
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.8
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 8 Maternal hypoglycemia.
Analysis 6.9
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.9
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 9 Diabetic ketoacidosis (not pre‐specified).
Analysis 6.10
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.10
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 10 Preterm birth
Analysis 6.11
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.11
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 11 Macrosomia.
Analysis 6.12
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.12
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 12 Neonatal hypoglycaemia.
- Techniques of monitoring blood glucose during pregnancy for women with pre-existing diabetes.Moy FM, Ray A, Buckley BS. Moy FM, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Apr 30;(4):CD009613. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009613.pub2. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014. PMID: 24782359 Updated. Review.
- Techniques of monitoring blood glucose during pregnancy for women with pre-existing diabetes.Jones LV, Ray A, Moy FM, Buckley BS. Jones LV, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 May 23;5(5):CD009613. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009613.pub4. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019. PMID: 31120549 Free PMC article.
- Techniques of monitoring blood glucose during pregnancy for women with pre-existing diabetes.Moy FM, Ray A, Buckley BS. Moy FM, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Apr 30;(4):CD009613. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009613.pub2. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014. PMID: 24782359 Updated. Review.
- Different methods and settings for glucose monitoring for gestational diabetes during pregnancy.Raman P, Shepherd E, Dowswell T, Middleton P, Crowther CA. Raman P, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Oct 29;10(10):CD011069. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD011069.pub2. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017. PMID: 29081069 Free PMC article. Review.
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- Meta-Analysis
- Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
- Review
- Systematic Review
- Blood Glucose Self-Monitoring / methods*
- Cesarean Section / statistics & numerical data
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 / blood*
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 / blood*
- Fasting / blood
- Female
- Glycated Hemoglobin / analysis
- Hospitalization
- Humans
- Infant, Newborn
- Perinatal Mortality
- Postprandial Period
- Pregnancy
- Pregnancy Complications, Cardiovascular / epidemiology
- Pregnancy Outcome*
- Pregnancy in Diabetics / blood*
- Premature Birth / epidemiology
- Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic
- Telemedicine
- Glycated Hemoglobin A
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- Other Literature Sources
- Medical
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![Analysis 3.9](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-003-09.jpg)
![Analysis 3.10](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-003-10.jpg)
![Analysis 3.11](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-003-11.jpg)
Analysis 3.12
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.12
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 12 Macrosomia.
Analysis 3.13
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.13
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 13 Birthweight.
Analysis 3.14
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.14
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 14 Adiposity ‐ Subscapula skinfold…
Analysis 3.15
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.15
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 15 Adiposity ‐ Triceps skinfold…
Analysis 3.16
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.16
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 16 Birth trauma (shoulder dystocia,…
Analysis 3.17
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.17
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 17 Respiratory distress syndrome.
Analysis 3.18
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.18
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 18 Neonatal hypoglycaemia.
Analysis 3.19
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.19
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 19 Neonatal jaundice (hyperbilirubinaemia).
Analysis 3.20
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.20
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 20 Cord IGF‐1.
Analysis 3.21
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.21
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 21 Neonatal glucose at age…
Analysis 3.22
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.22
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 22 Transient tachypnea (not pre‐specified).
Analysis 3.23
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial…
Analysis 3.23
Comparison 3 Pre‐prandial versus post‐prandial glucose monitoring, Outcome 23 Neonatal intensive care admissions.
Analysis 4.1
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.1
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 1 Caesarean section.
Analysis 4.2
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.2
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 2 Neonatal morbidity composite.
Analysis 4.3
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.3
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 3 Weight gain during pregnancy…
Analysis 4.4
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.4
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 4 Use of additional insulin…
Analysis 4.5
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.5
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 5 Insulin requirement at end…
Analysis 4.6
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.6
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 6 Glycaemic control ‐ Maternal…
Analysis 4.7
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.7
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 7 Glycaemic control ‐ Maternal…
Analysis 4.8
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.8
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 8 Glycaemic control ‐ Maternal…
Analysis 4.9
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.9
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 9 Glycaemic control ‐ Maternal…
Analysis 4.10
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.10
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 10 Gestational age at birth.
Analysis 4.11
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.11
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 11 Macrosomia.
Analysis 4.12
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring…
Analysis 4.12
Comparison 4 Automated telemedicine monitoring versus conventional, Outcome 12 Birthweight.
Analysis 5.1
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.1
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 1 Pre‐eclampsia.
Analysis 5.2
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.2
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 2 Caesarean section.
Analysis 5.3
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.3
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 3 Large‐for‐gestational age.
Analysis 5.4
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.4
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 4 Perinatal mortality.
Analysis 5.5
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.5
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 5 Glycaemic control…
Analysis 5.6
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.6
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 6 Miscarriage.
Analysis 5.7
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.7
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 7 Neonatal mortality.
Analysis 5.8
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.8
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 8 Gestational age…
Analysis 5.9
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.9
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 9 Preterm birth…
Analysis 5.10
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.10
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 10 Small‐for‐gestational age.
Analysis 5.11
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.11
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 11 Birthweight.
Analysis 5.12
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.12
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 12 Neonatal hypoglycaemia.
Analysis 5.13
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.13
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 13 Major anomalies.
Analysis 5.14
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.14
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 14 Neonatal intensive…
Analysis 6.1
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.1
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 1 Caesarean section.
Analysis 6.2
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.2
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 2 Weight gain during pregnancy.
Analysis 6.3
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.3
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 3 Insulin dosage, 3 rd…
Analysis 6.4
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.4
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 4 Glycaemic control ‐ Maternal…
Analysis 6.5
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.5
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 5 Glycaemic control ‐ Maternal…
Analysis 6.6
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.6
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 6 Glycaemic control ‐ Maternal…
Analysis 6.7
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.7
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 7 Glycaemic control ‐ Maternal…
Analysis 6.8
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.8
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 8 Maternal hypoglycemia.
Analysis 6.9
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.9
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 9 Diabetic ketoacidosis (not pre‐specified).
Analysis 6.10
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.10
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 10 Preterm birth
Analysis 6.11
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.11
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 11 Macrosomia.
Analysis 6.12
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.12
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 12 Neonatal hypoglycaemia.
- Techniques of monitoring blood glucose during pregnancy for women with pre-existing diabetes.Moy FM, Ray A, Buckley BS. Moy FM, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Apr 30;(4):CD009613. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009613.pub2. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014. PMID: 24782359 Updated. Review.
- Techniques of monitoring blood glucose during pregnancy for women with pre-existing diabetes.Jones LV, Ray A, Moy FM, Buckley BS. Jones LV, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 May 23;5(5):CD009613. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009613.pub4. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019. PMID: 31120549 Free PMC article.
- Techniques of monitoring blood glucose during pregnancy for women with pre-existing diabetes.Moy FM, Ray A, Buckley BS. Moy FM, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Apr 30;(4):CD009613. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009613.pub2. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014. PMID: 24782359 Updated. Review.
- Different methods and settings for glucose monitoring for gestational diabetes during pregnancy.Raman P, Shepherd E, Dowswell T, Middleton P, Crowther CA. Raman P, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Oct 29;10(10):CD011069. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD011069.pub2. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017. PMID: 29081069 Free PMC article. Review.
- Dietary advice interventions in pregnancy for preventing gestational diabetes mellitus.Tieu J, Shepherd E, Middleton P, Crowther CA. Tieu J, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Jan 3;1(1):CD006674. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006674.pub3. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017. PMID: 28046205 Free PMC article. Review.
- Exercise for pregnant women with gestational diabetes for improving maternal and fetal outcomes.Brown J, Ceysens G, Boulvain M. Brown J, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Jun 22;6(6):CD012202. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD012202.pub2. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017. PMID: 28639706 Free PMC article. Review.
- Knowledge of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Among Saudi Women in a Primary Health Care Center of Almadinah Almunawarah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.Abdulaziz Khayat A, Fallatah N. Abdulaziz Khayat A, et al. Cureus. 2022 Mar 8;14(3):e22979. doi: 10.7759/cureus.22979. eCollection 2022 Mar. Cureus. 2022. PMID: 35415024 Free PMC article.
- Quality appraisal of systematic reviews on methods of labour induction: a systematic review.Chow R, Li A, Wu N, Martin M, Wessels JM, Foster WG. Chow R, et al. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2021 Dec;304(6):1417-1426. doi: 10.1007/s00404-021-06228-y. Epub 2021 Sep 8. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2021. PMID: 34495378 Review.
- Correlates of blood pressure and blood glucose screenings in Cameroon: insights from the 2018 Demographic and Health Survey.Duodu PA, Agbadi P, Duah HO, Darkwah E, Nutor JJ. Duodu PA, et al. Int Health. 2022 Mar 2;14(2):201-210. doi: 10.1093/inthealth/ihab033. Int Health. 2022. PMID: 34118153 Free PMC article.
- Intracervical double-balloon catheter versus dinoprostone for cervical ripening in labor induction in pregnancies with a high risk of uterine hyperstimulation.Cañadas JV, González MT, Limón NP, Alguacil MS, Prieto MG, Riaza RC, Montero-Macías R. Cañadas JV, et al. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2021 Dec;304(6):1475-1484. doi: 10.1007/s00404-021-06071-1. Epub 2021 Apr 27. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2021. PMID: 33904957
- Time trends in pregnancy-related outcomes among women with type 1 diabetes mellitus, 2004-2017.Helman S, James-Todd TM, Wang Z, Bellavia A, Wyckoff JA, Serdy S, Halprin E, O'Brien K, Takoudes T, Gupta M, McElrath TF, Brown FM. Helman S, et al. J Perinatol. 2020 Aug;40(8):1145-1153. doi: 10.1038/s41372-020-0698-x. Epub 2020 Jun 2. J Perinatol. 2020. PMID: 32488037 Free PMC article.
- Meta-Analysis
- Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
- Review
- Systematic Review
- Blood Glucose Self-Monitoring / methods*
- Cesarean Section / statistics & numerical data
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 / blood*
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 / blood*
- Fasting / blood
- Female
- Glycated Hemoglobin / analysis
- Hospitalization
- Humans
- Infant, Newborn
- Perinatal Mortality
- Postprandial Period
- Pregnancy
- Pregnancy Complications, Cardiovascular / epidemiology
- Pregnancy Outcome*
- Pregnancy in Diabetics / blood*
- Premature Birth / epidemiology
- Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic
- Telemedicine
- Glycated Hemoglobin A
- Full Text Sources
- Other Literature Sources
- Medical
NCBI Literature Resources
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![Analysis 3.12](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-003-12.jpg)
![Analysis 3.13](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-003-13.jpg)
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![Analysis 4.2](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-004-02.jpg)
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![Analysis 4.12](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-004-12.jpg)
![Analysis 5.1](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-005-01.jpg)
![Analysis 5.2](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-005-02.jpg)
![Analysis 5.3](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-005-03.jpg)
![Analysis 5.4](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-005-04.jpg)
![Analysis 5.5](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-005-05.jpg)
![Analysis 5.6](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-005-06.jpg)
![Analysis 5.7](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-005-07.jpg)
![Analysis 5.8](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-005-08.jpg)
![Analysis 5.9](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-005-09.jpg)
Analysis 5.10
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.10
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 10 Small‐for‐gestational age.
Analysis 5.11
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.11
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 11 Birthweight.
Analysis 5.12
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.12
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 12 Neonatal hypoglycaemia.
Analysis 5.13
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.13
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 13 Major anomalies.
Analysis 5.14
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring…
Analysis 5.14
Comparison 5 Continuous glucose monitoring versus intermittent glucose monitoring, Outcome 14 Neonatal intensive…
Analysis 6.1
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.1
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 1 Caesarean section.
Analysis 6.2
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.2
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 2 Weight gain during pregnancy.
Analysis 6.3
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.3
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 3 Insulin dosage, 3 rd…
Analysis 6.4
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.4
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 4 Glycaemic control ‐ Maternal…
Analysis 6.5
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.5
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 5 Glycaemic control ‐ Maternal…
Analysis 6.6
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.6
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 6 Glycaemic control ‐ Maternal…
Analysis 6.7
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.7
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 7 Glycaemic control ‐ Maternal…
Analysis 6.8
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.8
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 8 Maternal hypoglycemia.
Analysis 6.9
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.9
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 9 Diabetic ketoacidosis (not pre‐specified).
Analysis 6.10
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.10
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 10 Preterm birth
Analysis 6.11
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.11
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 11 Macrosomia.
Analysis 6.12
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.12
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 12 Neonatal hypoglycaemia.
- Techniques of monitoring blood glucose during pregnancy for women with pre-existing diabetes.Moy FM, Ray A, Buckley BS. Moy FM, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Apr 30;(4):CD009613. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009613.pub2. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014. PMID: 24782359 Updated. Review.
- Techniques of monitoring blood glucose during pregnancy for women with pre-existing diabetes.Jones LV, Ray A, Moy FM, Buckley BS. Jones LV, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 May 23;5(5):CD009613. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009613.pub4. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019. PMID: 31120549 Free PMC article.
- Techniques of monitoring blood glucose during pregnancy for women with pre-existing diabetes.Moy FM, Ray A, Buckley BS. Moy FM, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Apr 30;(4):CD009613. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009613.pub2. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014. PMID: 24782359 Updated. Review.
- Different methods and settings for glucose monitoring for gestational diabetes during pregnancy.Raman P, Shepherd E, Dowswell T, Middleton P, Crowther CA. Raman P, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Oct 29;10(10):CD011069. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD011069.pub2. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017. PMID: 29081069 Free PMC article. Review.
- Dietary advice interventions in pregnancy for preventing gestational diabetes mellitus.Tieu J, Shepherd E, Middleton P, Crowther CA. Tieu J, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Jan 3;1(1):CD006674. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006674.pub3. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017. PMID: 28046205 Free PMC article. Review.
- Exercise for pregnant women with gestational diabetes for improving maternal and fetal outcomes.Brown J, Ceysens G, Boulvain M. Brown J, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Jun 22;6(6):CD012202. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD012202.pub2. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017. PMID: 28639706 Free PMC article. Review.
- Knowledge of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Among Saudi Women in a Primary Health Care Center of Almadinah Almunawarah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.Abdulaziz Khayat A, Fallatah N. Abdulaziz Khayat A, et al. Cureus. 2022 Mar 8;14(3):e22979. doi: 10.7759/cureus.22979. eCollection 2022 Mar. Cureus. 2022. PMID: 35415024 Free PMC article.
- Quality appraisal of systematic reviews on methods of labour induction: a systematic review.Chow R, Li A, Wu N, Martin M, Wessels JM, Foster WG. Chow R, et al. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2021 Dec;304(6):1417-1426. doi: 10.1007/s00404-021-06228-y. Epub 2021 Sep 8. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2021. PMID: 34495378 Review.
- Correlates of blood pressure and blood glucose screenings in Cameroon: insights from the 2018 Demographic and Health Survey.Duodu PA, Agbadi P, Duah HO, Darkwah E, Nutor JJ. Duodu PA, et al. Int Health. 2022 Mar 2;14(2):201-210. doi: 10.1093/inthealth/ihab033. Int Health. 2022. PMID: 34118153 Free PMC article.
- Intracervical double-balloon catheter versus dinoprostone for cervical ripening in labor induction in pregnancies with a high risk of uterine hyperstimulation.Cañadas JV, González MT, Limón NP, Alguacil MS, Prieto MG, Riaza RC, Montero-Macías R. Cañadas JV, et al. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2021 Dec;304(6):1475-1484. doi: 10.1007/s00404-021-06071-1. Epub 2021 Apr 27. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2021. PMID: 33904957
- Time trends in pregnancy-related outcomes among women with type 1 diabetes mellitus, 2004-2017.Helman S, James-Todd TM, Wang Z, Bellavia A, Wyckoff JA, Serdy S, Halprin E, O'Brien K, Takoudes T, Gupta M, McElrath TF, Brown FM. Helman S, et al. J Perinatol. 2020 Aug;40(8):1145-1153. doi: 10.1038/s41372-020-0698-x. Epub 2020 Jun 2. J Perinatol. 2020. PMID: 32488037 Free PMC article.
- Meta-Analysis
- Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
- Review
- Systematic Review
- Blood Glucose Self-Monitoring / methods*
- Cesarean Section / statistics & numerical data
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 / blood*
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 / blood*
- Fasting / blood
- Female
- Glycated Hemoglobin / analysis
- Hospitalization
- Humans
- Infant, Newborn
- Perinatal Mortality
- Postprandial Period
- Pregnancy
- Pregnancy Complications, Cardiovascular / epidemiology
- Pregnancy Outcome*
- Pregnancy in Diabetics / blood*
- Premature Birth / epidemiology
- Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic
- Telemedicine
- Glycated Hemoglobin A
- Full Text Sources
- Other Literature Sources
- Medical
![Analysis 5.10](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-005-10.jpg)
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![Analysis 5.14](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-005-14.jpg)
![Analysis 6.1](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-006-01.jpg)
![Analysis 6.2](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-006-02.jpg)
![Analysis 6.3](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-006-03.jpg)
![Analysis 6.4](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-006-04.jpg)
![Analysis 6.5](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-006-05.jpg)
![Analysis 6.6](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-006-06.jpg)
![Analysis 6.7](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-006-07.jpg)
![Analysis 6.8](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-006-08.jpg)
![Analysis 6.9](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-006-09.jpg)
![Analysis 6.10](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-006-10.jpg)
Analysis 6.11
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.11
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 11 Macrosomia.
Analysis 6.12
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus…
Analysis 6.12
Comparison 6 Constant CGM versus intermittent CGM, Outcome 12 Neonatal hypoglycaemia.
![Analysis 6.11](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-006-11.jpg)
![Analysis 6.12](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/instance/6481528/bin/nCD009613-CMP-006-12.jpg)
Source: PubMed