The COVID-19 pandemic: a global health crisis

Casey A Pollard, Michael P Morran, Andrea L Nestor-Kalinoski, Casey A Pollard, Michael P Morran, Andrea L Nestor-Kalinoski

Abstract

The novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 was identified as the causative agent for a series of atypical respiratory diseases in the Hubei Province of Wuhan, China in December of 2019. The disease SARS-CoV-2, termed COVID-19, was officially declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization on March 11, 2020. SARS-CoV-2 contains a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome surrounded by an extracellular membrane containing a series of spike glycoproteins resembling a crown. COVID-19 infection results in diverse symptoms and morbidity depending on individual genetics, ethnicity, age, and geographic location. In severe cases, COVID-19 pathophysiology includes destruction of lung epithelial cells, thrombosis, hypercoagulation, and vascular leak leading to sepsis. These events lead to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and subsequent pulmonary fibrosis in patients. COVID-19 risk factors include cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and diabetes, which are highly prevalent in the United States. This population has upregulation of the angiotensin converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) receptor, which is exploited by COVID-19 as the route of entry and infection. Viral envelope proteins bind to and degrade ACE2 receptors, thus preventing normal ACE2 function. COVID-19 infection causes imbalances in ACE2 and induces an inflammatory immune response, known as a cytokine storm, both of which amplify comorbidities within the host. Herein, we discuss the genetics, pathogenesis, and possible therapeutics of COVID-19 infection along with secondary complications associated with disease progression, including ARDS and pulmonary fibrosis. Understanding the mechanisms of COVID-19 infection will allow the development of vaccines or other novel therapeutic approaches to prevent transmission or reduce the severity of infection.

Keywords: ARDS; COVID-19; GTPases; genetics; pulmonary fibrosis.

Conflict of interest statement

No conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise, are declared by the authors.

Figures

Fig. 1.
Fig. 1.
Biological effects of COVID-19 infection on angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor and GTPase signaling pathways. The COVID-19 virus can bind and interact with both shed ACE2 and the cell membrane-bound ACE2 receptor. COVID-19 particles utilize and degrade membrane bound ACE2 receptors to gain entry into host cells. Virus particles also bind shed ACE2 causing a reduction in free ACE2 thus preventing the hydrolysis of ANG I/II into ANG-(1-9)/ANG-(1-7), which results in an imbalanced renin-angiotensin system that becomes skewed toward the ANG II/angiotensin type 1 receptor (AT1R) axis. COVID-19 produces an inflammatory response, i.e., the cytokine storm, which triggers cellular activation through cytokine receptors (CRs). Upon infection, these interactions favor detrimental complications such as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)/pulmonary fibrosis, vasoconstriction and alters cytoskeletal dynamics including cell proliferation, migration, and cytoskeletal composition. Intracellular elements such as Abelson murine leukemia viral oncogene homolog 1 kinase and Rho GTPase-associated proteins play a significant role in controlling polymerization of F-actin, maintaining the density of the extracellular matrix (ECM), and modulating myofibroblast proliferation, and the development of pulmonary fibrosis.

References

    1. Alimadadi A, Aryal S, Manandhar I, Munroe PB, Joe B, Cheng X. Artificial intelligence and machine learning to fight COVID-19. Physiol Genomics 52: 200–202, 2020. doi:10.1152/physiolgenomics.00029.2020.
    1. Amanat F, Krammer F. SARS-CoV-2 vaccines: status report. Immunity 52: 583–589, 2020. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2020.03.007.
    1. Andersen KG, Rambaut A, Lipkin WI, Holmes EC, Garry RF. The proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2. Nat Med 26: 450–452, 2020. doi:10.1038/s41591-020-0820-9.
    1. Asano S, Ito S, Takahashi K, Furuya K, Kondo M, Sokabe M, Hasegawa Y. Matrix stiffness regulates migration of human lung fibroblasts. Physiol Rep 5: e13281, 2017. doi:10.14814/phy2.13281.
    1. Badawi A, Ryoo SG. Prevalence of comorbidities in the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Infect Dis 49: 129–133, 2016. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2016.06.015.
    1. Barkauskas CE, Noble PW. Cellular mechanisms of tissue fibrosis. 7. New insights into the cellular mechanisms of pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 306: C987–C996, 2014. doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00321.2013.
    1. Buijsers B, Yanginlar C, Grondman I, de Nooijer A, Maciej-Hulme ML, Jonkman I, Janssen N, Rother N, de Graaf M, Pickkers P, Kox M, Joosten L, Nijenhuis T, Netea MG, Hillbrands L, van de Veerdonk F, Duivenvoorden R, de Mast Q, and van der Vlag J. Increased plasma heparanase activity in COVID-19 patients (Preprint). medRxiv; doi:10.1101/2020.06.12.20129304.
    1. Cao Y, Li L, Feng Z, Wan S, Huang P, Sun X, Wen F, Huang X, Ning G, Wang W. Comparative genetic analysis of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV/SARS-CoV-2) receptor ACE2 in different populations. Cell Discov 6: 11, 2020. doi:10.1038/s41421-020-0147-1.
    1. Carnevale-Schianca F, Gallo S, Rota-Scalabrini D, Sangiolo D, Fizzotti M, Caravelli D, Capaldi A, Anselmetti G, Palesandro E, D’Ambrosio L, Coha V, Obert R, Aglietta M, Grignani G. Complete resolution of life-threatening bleomycin-induced pneumonitis after treatment with imatinib mesylate in a patient with Hodgkin’s lymphoma: hope for severe chemotherapy-induced toxicity? J Clin Oncol 29: e691–e693, 2011. doi:10.1200/JCO.2011.35.6733.
    1. Casanova JL, Su HC; COVID Human Genetic Effort . A global effort to define the human genetics of protective immunity to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Cell 181: 1194–1199, 2020. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.05.016.
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . CDC COVID Data Tracker: Demographic Trends of COVID-19 cases and deaths in the US reported to CDC. [16 September 2020].
    1. Centers For Disease Control and Prevention . Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)- Cases, Data, & Surveillance. . [16 September 2020].
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . Provisional COVID-19 Death Counts by Sex, Age, and State. [16 September 2020].
    1. Ceraolo C, Giorgi FM. Genomic variance of the 2019-nCoV coronavirus. J Med Virol 92: 522–528, 2020. doi:10.1002/jmv.25700.
    1. Channappanavar R, Perlman S. Pathogenic human coronavirus infections: causes and consequences of cytokine storm and immunopathology. Semin Immunopathol 39: 529–539, 2017. doi:10.1007/s00281-017-0629-x.
    1. COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel . Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Treatment Guidelines. National Institutes of Health. [1 September 2020]
    1. Decaro N, Mari V, Elia G, Addie DD, Camero M, Lucente MS, Martella V, Buonavoglia C. Recombinant canine coronaviruses in dogs, Europe. Emerg Infect Dis 16: 41–47, 2010. doi:10.3201/eid1601.090726.
    1. Duan K, Liu B, Li C, Zhang H, Yu T, Qu J, Zhou M, Chen L, Meng S, Hu Y, Peng C, Yuan M, Huang J, Wang Z, Yu J, Gao X, Wang D, Yu X, Li L, Zhang J, Wu X, Li B, Xu Y, Chen W, Peng Y, Hu Y, Lin L, Liu X, Huang S, Zhou Z, Zhang L, Wang Y, Zhang Z, Deng K, Xia Z, Gong Q, Zhang W, Zheng X, Liu Y, Yang H, Zhou D, Yu D, Hou J, Shi Z, Chen S, Chen Z, Zhang X, Yang X. Effectiveness of convalescent plasma therapy in severe COVID-19 patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 117: 9490–9496, 2020. doi:10.1073/pnas.2004168117.
    1. Dudek SM, Garcia JG. Cytoskeletal regulation of pulmonary vascular permeability. J Appl Physiol (1985) 91: 1487–1500, 2001. doi:10.1152/jappl.2001.91.4.1487.
    1. Ferron F, Subissi L, Silveira De Morais AT, Le NT, Sevajol M, Gluais L, Decroly E, Vonrhein C, Bricogne G, Canard B, Imbert I. Structural and molecular basis of mismatch correction and ribavirin excision from coronavirus RNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 115: E162–E171, 2018. doi:10.1073/pnas.1718806115.
    1. Forster P, Forster L, Renfrew C, Forster M. Phylogenetic network analysis of SARS-CoV-2 genomes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 117: 9241–9243, 2020. doi:10.1073/pnas.2004999117.
    1. Fujishima S. Pathophysiology and biomarkers of acute respiratory distress syndrome. J Intensive Care 2: 32, 2014. doi:10.1186/2052-0492-2-32.
    1. Gemmati D, Bramanti B, Serino ML, Secchiero P, Zauli G, Tisato V. COVID-19 and Individual genetic susceptibility/receptivity: role of ACE1/ACE2 Genes, immunity, inflammation and coagulation. might the double X-chromosome in females be protective against SARS-CoV-2 compared to the single X-chromosome in males? Int J Mol Sci 21: 3474, 2020. doi:10.3390/ijms21103474.
    1. Global Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases Collaboration; Roth GA, Johnson CO, Abate KH, Abd-Allah F, Ahmed M, Alam K, Alam T, Alvis-Guzman N, Ansari H, Ärnlöv J, Atey TM, Awasthi A, Awoke T, Barac A, Bärnighausen T, Bedi N, Bennett D, Bensenor I, Biadgilign S, Castañeda-Orjuela C, Catalá-López F, Davletov K, Dharmaratne S, Ding EL, Dubey M, Faraon EJ, Farid T, Farvid MS, Feigin V, Fernandes J, Frostad J, Gebru A, Geleijnse JM, Gona PN, Griswold M, Hailu GB, Hankey GJ, Hassen HY, Havmoeller R, Hay S, Heckbert SR, Irvine CM, James SL, Jara D, Kasaeian A, Khan AR, Khera S, Khoja AT, Khubchandani J, Kim D, Kolte D, Lal D, Larsson A, Linn S, Lotufo PA, Magdy Abd El Razek H, Mazidi M, Meier T, Mendoza W, Mensah GA, Meretoja A, Mezgebe HB, Mirrakhimov E, Mohammed S, Moran AE, Nguyen G, Nguyen M, Ong KL, Owolabi M, Pletcher M, Pourmalek F, Purcell CA, Qorbani M, Rahman M, Rai RK, Ram U, Reitsma MB, Renzaho AM, Rios-Blancas MJ, Safiri S, Salomon JA, Sartorius B, Sepanlou SG, Shaikh MA, Silva D, Stranges S, Tabarés-Seisdedos R, Tadele Atnafu N, Thakur JS, Topor-Madry R, Truelsen T, Tuzcu EM, Tyrovolas S, Ukwaja KN, Vasankari T, Vlassov V, Vollset SE, Wakayo T, Weintraub R, Wolfe C, Workicho A, Xu G, Yadgir S, Yano Y, Yip P, Yonemoto N, Younis M, Yu C, Zaidi Z, Zaki ME, Zipkin B, Afshin A, Gakidou E, Lim SS, Mokdad AH, Naghavi M, Vos T, Murray CJ;. The burden of cardiovascular diseases among US states, 1990-2016. JAMA Cardiol 3: 375–389, 2018. doi:10.1001/jamacardio.2018.0385.
    1. Golonka RM, Saha P, Yeoh BS, Chattopadhyay S, Gewirtz AT, Joe B, Vijay-Kumar M. Harnessing innate immunity to eliminate SARS-CoV-2 and ameliorate COVID-19 disease. Physiol Genomics 52: 217–221, 2020. doi:10.1152/physiolgenomics.00033.2020.
    1. Gordon DE, Jang GM, Bouhaddou M, Xu J, Obernier K, White KM, O’Meara MJ, Rezelj VV, Guo JZ, Swaney DL, Tummino TA, Hüttenhain R, Kaake RM, Richards AL, Tutuncuoglu B, Foussard H, Batra J, Haas K, Modak M, Kim M, Haas P, Polacco BJ, Braberg H, Fabius JM, Eckhardt M, Soucheray M, Bennett MJ, Cakir M, McGregor MJ, Li Q, Meyer B, Roesch F, Vallet T, Mac Kain A, Miorin L, Moreno E, Naing ZZ, Zhou Y, Peng S, Shi Y, Zhang Z, Shen W, Kirby IT, Melnyk JE, Chorba JS, Lou K, Dai SA, Barrio-Hernandez I, Memon D, Hernandez-Armenta C, Lyu J, Mathy CJ, Perica T, Pilla KB, Ganesan SJ, Saltzberg DJ, Rakesh R, Liu X, Rosenthal SB, Calviello L, Venkataramanan S, Liboy-Lugo J, Lin Y, Huang XP, Liu Y, Wankowicz SA, Bohn M, Safari M, Ugur FS, Koh C, Savar NS, Tran QD, Shengjuler D, Fletcher SJ, O’Neal MC, Cai Y, Chang JC, Broadhurst DJ, Klippsten S, Sharp PP, Wenzell NA, Kuzuoglu-Ozturk D, Wang HY, Trenker R, Young JM, Cavero DA, Hiatt J, Roth TL, Rathore U, Subramanian A, Noack J, Hubert M, Stroud RM, Frankel AD, Rosenberg OS, Verba KA, Agard DA, Ott M, Emerman M, Jura N, von Zastrow M, Verdin E, Ashworth A, Schwartz O, d’Enfert C, Mukherjee S, Jacobson M, Malik HS, Fujimori DG, Ideker T, Craik CS, Floor SN, Fraser JS, Gross JD, Sali A, Roth BL, Ruggero D, Taunton J, Kortemme T, Beltrao P, Vignuzzi M, García-Sastre A, Shokat KM, Shoichet BK, Krogan NJ. A SARS-CoV-2 protein interaction map reveals targets for drug repurposing. Nature 583: 459–468, 2020. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2286-9.
    1. Gupta MD, Girish MP, Yadav G, Shankar A, Yadav R. Coronavirus disease 2019 and the cardiovascular system: Impacts and implications. Indian Heart J 72: 1–6, 2020. doi:10.1016/j.ihj.2020.03.006.
    1. Guzik TJ, Mohiddin SA, Dimarco A, Patel V, Savvatis K, Marelli-Berg FM, Madhur MS, Tomaszewski M, Maffia P, D’Acquisto F, Nicklin SA, Marian AJ, Nosalski R, Murray EC, Guzik B, Berry C, Touyz RM, Kreutz R, Wang DW, Bhella D, Sagliocco O, Crea F, Thomson EC, McInnes IB. COVID-19 and the cardiovascular system: implications for risk assessment, diagnosis, and treatment options. Cardiovasc Res 116: 1666–1687, 2020. doi:10.1093/cvr/cvaa106.
    1. Hodgson J. The pandemic pipeline. Nat Biotechnol 38: 523–532, 2020. doi:10.1038/d41587-020-00005-z.
    1. Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, Krüger N, Herrler T, Erichsen S, Schiergens TS, Herrler G, Wu NH, Nitsche A, Müller MA, Drosten C, Pöhlmann S. SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell 181: 271–280.e8, 2020. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.02.052.
    1. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, Zhang L, Fan G, Xu J, Gu X, Cheng Z, Yu T, Xia J, Wei Y, Wu W, Xie X, Yin W, Li H, Liu M, Xiao Y, Gao H, Guo L, Xie J, Wang G, Jiang R, Gao Z, Jin Q, Wang J, Cao B. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 395: 497–506, 2020. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5.
    1. Huang X, Yang N, Fiore VF, Barker TH, Sun Y, Morris SW, Ding Q, Thannickal VJ, Zhou Y. Matrix stiffness-induced myofibroblast differentiation is mediated by intrinsic mechanotransduction. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 47: 340–348, 2012. doi:10.1165/rcmb.2012-0050OC.
    1. Huppert LA, Matthay MA, Ware LB. Pathogenesis of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 40: 31–39, 2019. doi:10.1055/s-0039-1683996.
    1. Jin Y, Yang H, Ji W, Wu W, Chen S, Zhang W, Duan G. Virology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, and control of COVID-19. Viruses 12: 372, 2020. doi:10.3390/v12040372.
    1. Kahn JS, McIntosh K. History and recent advances in coronavirus discovery. Pediatr Infect Dis J 24, Suppl: S223–S227, 2005. doi:10.1097/01.inf.0000188166.17324.60.
    1. Karki P, Birukova AA. Substrate stiffness-dependent exacerbation of endothelial permeability and inflammation: mechanisms and potential implications in ALI and PH (2017 Grover Conference Series). Pulm Circ 8: 2045894018773044, 2018. doi:10.1177/2045894018773044.
    1. Khatri A, Wang J, Pendergast AM. Multifunctional Abl kinases in health and disease. J Cell Sci 129: 9–16, 2016. doi:10.1242/jcs.175521.
    1. Kim D, Lee JY, Yang JS, Kim JW, Kim VN, Chang H. The architecture of SARS-CoV-2 transcriptome. Cell 181: 914–921.e10, 2020. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.011.
    1. Kim IK, Rhee CK, Yeo CD, Kang HH, Lee DG, Lee SH, Kim JW. Effect of tyrosine kinase inhibitors, imatinib and nilotinib, in murine lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury during neutropenia recovery. Crit Care 17: R114, 2013. doi:10.1186/cc12786.
    1. Lai MM, Cavanagh D. The molecular biology of coronaviruses. Adv Virus Res 48: 1–100, 1997. doi:10.1016/S0065-3527(08)60286-9.
    1. Letsiou E, Rizzo AN, Sammani S, Naureckas P, Jacobson JR, Garcia JG, Dudek SM. Differential and opposing effects of imatinib on LPS- and ventilator-induced lung injury. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 308: L259–L269, 2015. doi:10.1152/ajplung.00323.2014.
    1. Levi M, Thachil J, Iba T, Levy JH. Coagulation abnormalities and thrombosis in patients with COVID-19. Lancet Haematol 7: e438–e440, 2020. doi:10.1016/S2352-3026(20)30145-9.
    1. Li B, Yang J, Zhao F, Zhi L, Wang X, Liu L, Bi Z, Zhao Y. Prevalence and impact of cardiovascular metabolic diseases on COVID-19 in China. Clin Res Cardiol 109: 531–538, 2020. doi:10.1007/s00392-020-01626-9.
    1. Lin M, Tseng HK, Trejaut JA, Lee HL, Loo JH, Chu CC, Chen PJ, Su YW, Lim KH, Tsai ZU, Lin RY, Lin RS, Huang CH. Association of HLA class I with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection. BMC Med Genet 4: 9, 2003. doi:10.1186/1471-2350-4-9.
    1. Lippi G, Lavie CJ, Henry BM, Sanchis-Gomar F. Do genetic polymorphisms in angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) gene play a role in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)? Clin Chem Lab Med 58: 1415–1422, 2020. doi:10.1515/cclm-2020-0727.
    1. Lu G, Wang Q, Gao GF. Bat-to-human: spike features determining ‘host jump’ of coronaviruses SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and beyond. Trends Microbiol 23: 468–478, 2015. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2015.06.003.
    1. Matsuyama S, Nao N, Shirato K, Kawase M, Saito S, Takayama I, Nagata N, Sekizuka T, Katoh H, Kato F, Sakata M, Tahara M, Kutsuna S, Ohmagari N, Kuroda M, Suzuki T, Kageyama T, Takeda M. Enhanced isolation of SARS-CoV-2 by TMPRSS2-expressing cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 117: 7001–7003, 2020. doi:10.1073/pnas.2002589117.
    1. Matthay MA, Zimmerman GA. Acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome: four decades of inquiry into pathogenesis and rational management. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 33: 319–327, 2005. doi:10.1165/rcmb.F305.
    1. Mehta D, Malik AB. Signaling mechanisms regulating endothelial permeability. Physiol Rev 86: 279–367, 2006. doi:10.1152/physrev.00012.2005.
    1. Meng Y, Li T, Zhou GS, Chen Y, Yu CH, Pang MX, Li W, Li Y, Zhang WY, Li X. The angiotensin-converting enzyme 2/angiotensin (1-7)/Mas axis protects against lung fibroblast migration and lung fibrosis by inhibiting the NOX4-derived ROS-mediated RhoA/Rho kinase pathway. Antioxid Redox Signal 22: 241–258, 2015. doi:10.1089/ars.2013.5818.
    1. Mohammadpour S, Torshizi Esfahani A, Halaji M, Lak M, Ranjbar R. An updated review of the association of host genetic factors with susceptibility and resistance to COVID-19. J Cell Physiol, 2020. doi:10.1002/jcp.29868.
    1. Monteil V, Kwon H, Prado P, Hagelkrüys A, Wimmer RA, Stahl M, Leopoldi A, Garreta E, Hurtado Del Pozo C, Prosper F, Romero JP, Wirnsberger G, Zhang H, Slutsky AS, Conder R, Montserrat N, Mirazimi A, Penninger JM. Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 infections in engineered human tissues using clinical-grade soluble human ACE2. Cell 181: 905–913.e7, 2020. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.004.
    1. Murthy S, Gomersall CD, Fowler RA. Care for critically ill patients with COVID-19. JAMA 323: 1499–1500, 2020. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.3633.
    1. Nguyen A, David JK, Maden SK, Wood MA, Weeder BR, Nellore A, and Thompson RF. Human leukocyte antigen susceptibility map for SARS-CoV-2 (Preprint). medRxiv; doi:10.1101/2020.03.22.20040600.
    1. Qin M, Qiu Z. Changes in TNF-α, IL-6, IL-10 and VEGF in rats with ARDS and the effects of dexamethasone. Exp Ther Med 17: 383–387, 2019.
    1. Ragab D, Salah Eldin H, Taeimah M, Khattab R, Salem R. The COVID-19 cytokine storm; what we know so far. Front Immunol 11: 1446, 2020. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.01446.
    1. Rizzo AN, Aman J, van Nieuw Amerongen GP, Dudek SM. Targeting Abl kinases to regulate vascular leak during sepsis and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 35: 1071–1079, 2015. doi:10.1161/ATVBAHA.115.305085.
    1. Robson F, Khan KS, Le TK, Paris C, Demirbag S, Barfuss P, Rocchi P, Ng WL. Coronavirus RNA proofreading: molecular basis and therapeutic targeting. Mol Cell 79: 710–727, 2020. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2020.07.027.
    1. Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. Immune-epidemiological parameters of the novel coronavirus - a perspective. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 16: 465–470, 2020. doi:10.1080/1744666X.2020.1750954.
    1. Shahid Z, Kalayanamitra R, McClafferty B, Kepko D, Ramgobin D, Patel R, Aggarwal CS, Vunnam R, Sahu N, Bhatt D, Jones K, Golamari R, Jain R. COVID-19 and older adults: what we know. J Am Geriatr Soc 68: 926–929, 2020. doi:10.1111/jgs.16472.
    1. Shang W, Yang Y, Rao Y, Rao X. The outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia calls for viral vaccines. NPJ Vaccines 5: 18, 2020. doi:10.1038/s41541-020-0170-0.
    1. Shen C, Wang Z, Zhao F, Yang Y, Li J, Yuan J, Wang F, Li D, Yang M, Xing L, Wei J, Xiao H, Yang Y, Qu J, Qing L, Chen L, Xu Z, Peng L, Li Y, Zheng H, Chen F, Huang K, Jiang Y, Liu D, Zhang Z, Liu Y, Liu L. Treatment of 5 critically ill patients with COVID-19 with convalescent plasma. JAMA 323: 1582–1589, 2020. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.4783.
    1. Shimizu M. Clinical features of cytokine storm syndrome. In: Cytokine Storm Syndrome, edited by Cron RQ, Behrens EM. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 2019, p. 31–41.
    1. Stawiski EW, Diwanji D, Suryamohan K, Gupta R, Fellouse FA, Sathirapongsasuti JF, Liu J, Jiang YP, Ratan A, Mis M, Santhosh D, Somasekar S, Mohan S, Phalke S, Kuriakose B, Antony A, Junutula JR, Schuster SC, Jura N, Seshagiri S. Human ACE2 receptor polymorphisms predict SARS-CoV-2 susceptibility (Preprint). bioRxiv; doi:10.1101/2020.04.07.024752.
    1. Tai W, He L, Zhang X, Pu J, Voronin D, Jiang S, Zhou Y, Du L. Characterization of the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of 2019 novel coronavirus: implication for development of RBD protein as a viral attachment inhibitor and vaccine. Cell Mol Immunol 17: 613–620, 2020. doi:10.1038/s41423-020-0400-4.
    1. Tan W, Aboulhosn J. The cardiovascular burden of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) with a focus on congenital heart disease. Int J Cardiol 309: 70–77, 2020. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2020.03.063.
    1. Tang F, Liu W, Zhang F, Xin ZT, Wei MT, Zhang PH, Yang H, Ly H, Cao WC. IL-12 RB1 genetic variants contribute to human susceptibility to severe acute respiratory syndrome infection among Chinese. PLoS One 3: e2183, 2008. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002183.
    1. Tang N, Li D, Wang X, Sun Z. Abnormal coagulation parameters are associated with poor prognosis in patients with novel coronavirus pneumonia. J Thromb Haemost 18: 844–847, 2020. doi:10.1111/jth.14768.
    1. Tang X, Wu C, Li X, Song Y, Yao X, Wu X, Duan Y, Zhang H, Wang Y, Qian Z, Cui J, Lu J. On the origin and continuing evolution of SARS-CoV-2. Natl Sci Rev 7: 1012–1023, 2020. doi:10.1093/nsr/nwaa036.
    1. Tian X, Li C, Huang A, Xia S, Lu S, Shi Z, Lu L, Jiang S, Yang Z, Wu Y, Ying T. Potent binding of 2019 novel coronavirus spike protein by a SARS coronavirus-specific human monoclonal antibody. Emerg Microbes Infect 9: 382–385, 2020. doi:10.1080/22221751.2020.1729069.
    1. Tu X, Chong WP, Zhai Y, Zhang H, Zhang F, Wang S, Liu W, Wei M, Siu NH, Yang H, Yang W, Cao W, Lau YL, He F, Zhou G. Functional polymorphisms of the CCL2 and MBL genes cumulatively increase susceptibility to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection. J Infect 71: 101–109, 2015. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2015.03.006.
    1. Uddin M, Mustafa F, Rizvi TA, Loney T, Al Suwaidi H, Al-Marzouqi AH, Kamal Eldin A, Alsabeeha N, Adrian TE, Stefanini C, Nowotny N, Alsheikh-Ali A, Senok AC. SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19: viral genomics, epidemiology, vaccines, and therapeutic interventions. Viruses 12: 526, 2020. doi:10.3390/v12050526.
    1. Vabret N, Britton GJ, Gruber C, Hegde S, Kim J, Kuksin M, Levantovsky R, Malle L, Moreira A, Park MD, Pia L, Risson E, Saffern M, Salomé B, Esai Selvan M, Spindler MP, Tan J, van der Heide V, Gregory JK, Alexandropoulos K, Bhardwaj N, Brown BD, Greenbaum B, Gümüş ZH, Homann D, Horowitz A, Kamphorst AO, Curotto de Lafaille MA, Mehandru S, Merad M, Samstein RM, Agrawal M, Aleynick M, Belabed M, Brown M, Casanova-Acebes M, Catalan J, Centa M, Charap A, Chan A, Chen ST, Chung J, Bozkus CC, Cody E, Cossarini F, Dalla E, Fernandez N, Grout J, Ruan DF, Hamon P, Humblin E, Jha D, Kodysh J, Leader A, Lin M, Lindblad K, Lozano-Ojalvo D, Lubitz G, Magen A, Mahmood Z, Martinez-Delgado G, Mateus-Tique J, Meritt E, Moon C, Noel J, O’Donnell T, Ota M, Plitt T, Pothula V, Redes J, Reyes Torres I, Roberto M, Sanchez-Paulete AR, Shang J, Schanoski AS, Suprun M, Tran M, Vaninov N, Wilk CM, Aguirre-Ghiso J, Bogunovic D, Cho J, Faith J, Grasset E, Heeger P, Kenigsberg E, Krammer F, Laserson U; Sinai Immunology Review Project . Immunology of COVID-19: current state of the science. Immunity 52: 910–941, 2020. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2020.05.002.
    1. Verdecchia P, Cavallini C, Spanevello A, Angeli F. The pivotal link between ACE2 deficiency and SARS-CoV-2 infection. Eur J Intern Med 76: 14–20, 2020. doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2020.04.037.
    1. Wang JY. The capable ABL: what is its biological function? Mol Cell Biol 34: 1188–1197, 2014. doi:10.1128/MCB.01454-13.
    1. Wang K, Chen W, Zhou YS, Lian JQ, Zhang Z, Du P, Gong L, Zhang Y, Cui HY, Geng JJ, Wang B, Sun XX, Wang CF, Yang X, Lin P, Deng YQ, Wei D, Yang X-M, Zhu YM, Zhang K, Zheng ZH, Miao JL, Guo T, Shi Y, Zhang J, Fu L, Wang QY, Bian H, Zhu P, Chen ZN. SARS-CoV-2 invades host cells via a novel route: CD147-spike protein (Preprint). bioRxiv; doi:10.1101/2020.03.14.988345.
    1. Wang L, Chiang ET, Simmons JT, Garcia JG, Dudek SM. FTY720-induced human pulmonary endothelial barrier enhancement is mediated by c-Abl. Eur Respir J 38: 78–88, 2011. doi:10.1183/09031936.00047810.
    1. Weiss SR, Navas-Martin S. Coronavirus pathogenesis and the emerging pathogen severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 69: 635–664, 2005. doi:10.1128/MMBR.69.4.635-664.2005.
    1. Wilhelm KR, Roan E, Ghosh MC, Parthasarathi K, Waters CM. Hyperoxia increases the elastic modulus of alveolar epithelial cells through Rho kinase. FEBS J 281: 957–969, 2014. doi:10.1111/febs.12661.
    1. Woodring PJ, Hunter T, Wang JY. Regulation of F-actin-dependent processes by the Abl family of tyrosine kinases. J Cell Sci 116: 2613–2626, 2003. doi:10.1242/jcs.00622.
    1. World Health Organization . Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) situation report-201. . [14 September 2020].
    1. World Health Organization . WHO timeline - COVID-19. . [14 September 2020].
    1. Wu F, Zhao S, Yu B, Chen YM, Wang W, Song ZG, Hu Y, Tao ZW, Tian JH, Pei YY, Yuan ML, Zhang YL, Dai FH, Liu Y, Wang QM, Zheng JJ, Xu L, Holmes EC, Zhang YZ. A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China. Nature 579: 265–269, 2020. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2008-3.
    1. Wu J, Wu X, Zeng W, Guo D, Fang Z, Chen L, Huang H, Li C. Chest CT findings in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 and its relationship with clinical features. Invest Radiol 55: 257–261, 2020. doi:10.1097/RLI.0000000000000670.
    1. Yousefzadegan S, Rezaei N. Case report: death due to COVID-19 in three brothers. Am J Trop Med Hyg 102: 1203–1204, 2020. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.20-0240.
    1. Yuki K, Fujiogi M, Koutsogiannaki S. COVID-19 pathophysiology: a review. Clin Immunol 215: 108427, 2020. doi:10.1016/j.clim.2020.108427.
    1. Zandy NL, Playford M, Pendergast AM. Abl tyrosine kinases regulate cell-cell adhesion through Rho GTPases. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104: 17686–17691, 2007. doi:10.1073/pnas.0703077104.
    1. Zheng YY, Ma YT, Zhang JY, Xie X. COVID-19 and the cardiovascular system. Nat Rev Cardiol 17: 259–260, 2020. doi:10.1038/s41569-020-0360-5.
    1. Zhou Y, Hou Y, Shen J, Huang Y, Martin W, Cheng F. Network-based drug repurposing for novel coronavirus 2019-nCoV/SARS-CoV-2. Cell Discov 6: 14, 2020. doi:10.1038/s41421-020-0153-3.
    1. Zmora P, Moldenhauer AS, Hofmann-Winkler H, Pöhlmann S. TMPRSS2 isoform 1 activates respiratory viruses and is expressed in viral target cells. PLoS One 10: e0138380, 2015. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0138380.
    1. Zou X, Chen K, Zou J, Han P, Hao J, Han Z. Single-cell RNA-seq data analysis on the receptor ACE2 expression reveals the potential risk of different human organs vulnerable to 2019-nCoV infection. Front Med 14: 185–192, 2020. doi:10.1007/s11684-020-0754-0.

Source: PubMed

Sponsorer og samarbeidspartnere

Medisinsk tilstand

Legemiddelintervensjoner

3
Abonnere