Application of optical methods in the monitoring of traumatic brain injury: A review

Wojciech Weigl, Daniel Milej, Dariusz Janusek, Stanisław Wojtkiewicz, Piotr Sawosz, Michał Kacprzak, Anna Gerega, Roman Maniewski, Adam Liebert, Wojciech Weigl, Daniel Milej, Dariusz Janusek, Stanisław Wojtkiewicz, Piotr Sawosz, Michał Kacprzak, Anna Gerega, Roman Maniewski, Adam Liebert

Abstract

We present an overview of the wide range of potential applications of optical methods for monitoring traumatic brain injury. The MEDLINE database was electronically searched with the following search terms: "traumatic brain injury," "head injury," or "head trauma," and "optical methods," "NIRS," "near-infrared spectroscopy," "cerebral oxygenation," or "cerebral oximetry." Original reports concerning human subjects published from January 1980 to June 2015 in English were analyzed. Fifty-four studies met our inclusion criteria. Optical methods have been tested for detection of intracranial lesions, monitoring brain oxygenation, assessment of brain perfusion, and evaluation of cerebral autoregulation or intracellular metabolic processes in the brain. Some studies have also examined the applicability of optical methods during the recovery phase of traumatic brain injury . The limitations of currently available optical methods and promising directions of future development are described in this review. Considering the outstanding technical challenges, the limited number of patients studied, and the mixed results and opinions gathered from other reviews on this subject, we believe that optical methods must remain primarily research tools for the present. More studies are needed to gain confidence in the use of these techniques for neuromonitoring of traumatic brain injury patients.

Keywords: Cerebral oximetry; near-infrared spectroscopy; neuromonitoring; optical methods; traumatic brain injury.

© The Author(s) 2016.

Figures

Figure 1.
Figure 1.
NIRS data acquisition modes and obtained physiologically useful parameters. ΔcHb: changes in concentrations of deoxyhemoglobin; ΔcHbO2: changes in concentrations of oxyhemoglobin; ΔcHbT: changes in concentrations of total hemoglobin; cHb: absolute concentrations of deoxyhemoglobin; cHbO2: absolute concentrations of oxyhemoglobin; cHbT: absolute concentrations of total hemoglobin; rSO2: regional cerebral tissue oxygen saturation.

References

    1. Werner C, Engelhard K. Pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury. Br J Anaesth 2007; 99: 4–9.
    1. Bratton SL, Chestnut RM, Ghajar J, et al. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury. VI. Indications for intracranial pressure monitoring. J Neurotrauma 2007; 24(Suppl 1): S37–S44. .
    1. Steiner LA, Coles JP, Johnston AJ, et al. Assessment of cerebrovascular autoregulation in head-injured patients: a validation study. Stroke 2003; 34: 2404–2409.
    1. Donnelly J, Budohoski KP, Smielewski P, et al. Regulation of the cerebral circulation: bedside assessment and clinical implications. Crit Care 2016; 20: 129.
    1. Le Roux P, Menon DK, Citerio G, et al. Consensus summary statement of the international multidisciplinary consensus conference on multimodality monitoring in neurocritical care: a statement for healthcare professionals from the neurocritical care society and the european society of intensive care medicine. Neurocrit Care 2014; 24(Suppl 2): 1–26. .
    1. Oddo M, Bosel J and Participants in the International Multidisciplinary Consensus Conference on Multimodality Monitoring. Monitoring of brain and systemic oxygenation in neurocritical care patients. Neurocrit Care 2014; 21(Suppl 2): S103–S120.
    1. Bellander BM, Cantais E, Enblad P, et al. Consensus meeting on microdialysis in neurointensive care. Intensive Care Med 2004; 30: 2166–2169.
    1. Sawosz P, Kacprzak M, Weigl W, et al. Experimental estimation of the photons visiting probability profiles in time-resolved diffuse reflectance measurement. Phys Med Biol 2012; 57: 7973–7981.
    1. Torricelli A, Contini D, Dalla Mora A, et al. Neurophotonics: non-invasive optical techniques for monitoring brain functions. Function Neurol 2014; 29: 223–230.
    1. Calderon-Arnulphi M, Alaraj A, et al. Near infrared technology in neuroscience: past, present and future. Neurol Res 2009; 31: 605–614.
    1. Ghosh A, Elwell C, Smith M. Review article: cerebral near-infrared spectroscopy in adults: a work in progress. Anesth Analg 2012; 115: 1373–1383.
    1. Hoshi Y. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy: potential and limitations in neuroimaging studies. Int Rev Neurobiol 2005; 66: 237–266.
    1. Milej D, Gerega A, Zolek N, et al. Time-resolved detection of fluorescent light during inflow of ICG to the brain-a methodological study. Phys Med Biol 2012; 57: 6725–6742.
    1. Durduran T, Yodh AG. Diffuse correlation spectroscopy for non-invasive, micro-vascular cerebral blood flow measurement. Neuroimage 2014; 85(Pt 1): 51–63.
    1. Dragojevic T, Bronzi D, Varma HM, et al. High-speed multi-exposure laser speckle contrast imaging with a single-photon counting camera. Biomed Opt Exp 2015; 6: 2865–2876.
    1. Durduran T, Zhou C, Edlow BL, et al. Transcranial optical monitoring of cerebrovascular hemodynamics in acute stroke patients. Opt Exp 2009; 17: 3884–3902.
    1. Kessel B, Jeroukhimov I, Ashkenazi I, et al. Early detection of life-threatening intracranial haemorrhage using a portable near-infrared spectroscopy device. Injury 2007; 38: 1065–1068.
    1. Kahraman S, Kayali H, Atabey C, et al. The accuracy of near-infrared spectroscopy in detection of subdural and epidural hematomas. J Trauma 2006; 61: 1480–1483.
    1. Salonia R, Bell MJ, Kochanek PM, et al. The utility of near infrared spectroscopy in detecting intracranial hemorrhage in children. J Neurotrauma 2012; 29: 1047–1053.
    1. Robertson CS, Gopinath S, Chance B. Use of near infrared spectroscopy to identify traumatic intracranial hemotomas. J Biomed Opt 1997; 2: 31–41.
    1. Francis SV, Ravindran G, Visvanathan K, et al. Screening for unilateral intracranial abnormalities using near infrared spectroscopy: a preliminary report. J ClinNeurosci 2005; 12: 291–295.
    1. Sawosz P, Kacprzak M, Zolek N, et al. Optical system based on time-gated, intensified charge-coupled device camera for brain imaging studies. J Biomed Opt 2010; 15: 066025.
    1. Liebert A, Sawosz P, Milej D, et al. Assessment of inflow and washout of indocyanine green in the adult human brain by monitoring of diffuse reflectance at large source-detector separation. J Biomed Opt 2011; 16: 046011.
    1. Gopinath SP, Robertson CS, Grossman RG, et al. Near-infrared spectroscopic localization of intracranial hematomas. J Neurosurg 1993; 79: 43–47.
    1. Gopinath SP, Robertson CS, Contant CF, et al. Early detection of delayed traumatic intracranial hematomas using near-infrared spectroscopy. J Neurosurg 1995; 83: 438–444.
    1. Robertson CS, Gopinath SP, Chance B. A new application for near-infrared spectroscopy: detection of delayed intracranial hematomas after head injury. J Neurotrauma 1995; 12: 591–600.
    1. Ghalenoui H, Saidi H, Azar M, et al. Near-infrared laser spectroscopy as a screening tool for detecting hematoma in patients with head trauma. Prehosp Disaster Med 2008; 23: 558–561.
    1. Robertson CS, Zager EL, Narayan RK, et al. Clinical evaluation of a portable near-infrared device for detection of traumatic intracranial hematomas. J Neurotrauma 2010; 27: 1597–1604.
    1. Leon-Carrion J, Dominguez-Roldan JM, Leon-Dominguez U, et al. The Infrascanner, a handheld device for screening in situ for the presence of brain haematomas. Brain Injury 2010; 24: 1193–1201.
    1. Bressan S, Daverio M, Martinolli F, et al. The use of handheld near-infrared device (Infrascanner) for detecting intracranial haemorrhages in children with minor head injury. Childs Nerv Syst 2014; 30: 477–484.
    1. Gersten A, Raz A, Heimer D, et al. Probing brain oxygenation waveforms with near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), Rijeka, Croatia: INTECH Open Access Publisher, 2012. .
    1. Smythe PR, Samra SK. Monitors of cerebral oxygenation. Anesth Clin North Am 2002; 20: 293–313.
    1. Gomersall CD, Joynt GM, Gin T, et al. Failure of the INVOS 3100 cerebral oximeter to detect complete absence of cerebral blood flow. Crit Care Med 1997; 25: 1252–1254.
    1. Holzschuh M, Woertgen C, Metz C, et al. Dynamic changes of cerebral oxygenation measured by brain tissue oxygen pressure and near infrared spectroscopy. Neurol Res 1997; 19: 246–248.
    1. Brawanski A, Faltermeier R, Rothoerl RD, et al. Comparison of near-infrared spectroscopy and tissue p(O2) time series in patients after severe head injury and aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2002; 22: 605–611.
    1. Rothoerl RD, Faltermeier R, Burger R, et al. Dynamic correlation between tissue PO2 and near infrared spectroscopy. Acta Neurochir Suppl 2002; 81: 311–313.
    1. Budohoski KP, Zweifel C, Kasprowicz M, et al. What comes first? The dynamics of cerebral oxygenation and blood flow in response to changes in arterial pressure and intracranial pressure after head injury. Br J Anaesth 2012; 108: 89–99.
    1. McLeod AD, Igielman F, Elwell C, et al. Measuring cerebral oxygenation during normobaric hyperoxia: a comparison of tissue microprobes, near-infrared spectroscopy, and jugular venous oximetry in head injury. Anesth Analg 2003; 97: 851–856.
    1. Kirkpatrick PJ, Smielewski P, Czosnyka M, et al. Near-infrared spectroscopy use in patients with head injury. J Neurosurg 1995; 83: 963–970.
    1. Rosenthal G, Furmanov A, Itshayek E, et al. Assessment of a noninvasive cerebral oxygenation monitor in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg 2014; 120: 901–907.
    1. Tateishi A, Maekawa T, Soejima Y, et al. Qualitative comparison of carbon dioxide-induced change in cerebral near-infrared spectroscopy versus jugular venous oxygen saturation in adults with acute brain disease. Crit Care Med 1995; 23: 1734–1738.
    1. Leal-Noval SR, Cayuela A, Arellano-Orden V, et al. Invasive and noninvasive assessment of cerebral oxygenation in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. Intensive Care Med 2010; 36: 1309–1317.
    1. Buchner K, Meixensberger J, Dings J, et al. Near-infrared spectroscopy–not useful to monitor cerebral oxygenation after severe brain injury. Zentralbl Neurochir 2000; 61: 69–73.
    1. Robertson JL, Ghosh A, Correia T, et al. Effect of blood in the cerebrospinal fluid on the accuracy of cerebral oxygenation measured by near infrared spectroscopy. Adv Exp Med Biol 2014; 812: 233–240.
    1. Lewis SB, Myburgh JA, Thornton EL, et al. Cerebral oxygenation monitoring by near-infrared spectroscopy is not clinically useful in patients with severe closed-head injury: a comparison with jugular venous bulb oximetry. Crit Care Med 1996; 24: 1334–1338.
    1. Ter Minassian A, Poirier N, Pierrot M, et al. Correlation between cerebral oxygen saturation measured by near-infrared spectroscopy and jugular oxygen saturation in patients with severe closed head injury. Anesthesiology 1999; 91: 985–990.
    1. Dunham CM, Sosnowski C, Porter JM, et al. Correlation of noninvasive cerebral oximetry with cerebral perfusion in the severe head injured patient: a pilot study. J Trauma 2002; 52: 40–46.
    1. Dunham CM, Ransom KJ, Flowers LL, et al. Cerebral hypoxia in severely brain-injured patients is associated with admission Glasgow Coma Scale score, computed tomographic severity, cerebral perfusion pressure, and survival. J Trauma 2004; 56: 482–489. discussion 9–91.
    1. Taussky P, O'Neal B, Daugherty WP, et al. Validation of frontal near-infrared spectroscopy as noninvasive bedside monitoring for regional cerebral blood flow in brain-injured patients. Neurosurg Focus 2012; 32: E2.
    1. Kim MN, Durduran T, Frangos S, et al. Noninvasive measurement of cerebral blood flow and blood oxygenation using near-infrared and diffuse correlation spectroscopies in critically brain-injured adults. Neurocrit Care 2010; 12: 173–180.
    1. Shafer R, Brown A, Taylor C. Correlation between cerebral blood flow and oxygen saturation in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage and traumatic brain injury. J Neurointerv Surg 2011; 3: 395–398.
    1. Bashir Z, Miller J, Miyan JA, et al. A near infrared spectroscopy study investigating oxygen utilisation in hydrocephalic rats. Exp Brain Res 2006; 175: 127–138.
    1. Soul JS, Taylor GA, Wypij D, et al. Noninvasive detection of changes in cerebral blood flow by near-infrared spectroscopy in a piglet model of hydrocephalus. Pediatr Res 2000; 48: 445–449.
    1. Soul JS, Eichenwald E, Walter G, et al. CSF removal in infantile posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus results in significant improvement in cerebral hemodynamics. Pediatr Res 2004; 55: 872–876.
    1. Muellner T, Schramm W, Kwasny O, et al. Patients with increased intracranial pressure cannot be monitored using near infrared spectroscopy. Br J Neurosurg 1998; 12: 136–139.
    1. Zuluaga MT, Esch ME, Cvijanovich NZ, et al. Diagnosis influences response of cerebral near infrared spectroscopy to intracranial hypertension in children. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2010; 11: 514–522.
    1. Weerakkody RA, Czosnyka M, Zweifel C, et al. Near infrared spectroscopy as possible non-invasive monitor of slow vasogenic ICP waves. Acta Neurochir Suppl 2012; 114: 181–185. .
    1. Frydrychowski AF, Plucinski J. New aspects in assessment of changes in width of subarachnoid space with near-infrared transillumination-backscattering sounding, part 2: clinical verification in the patient. J Biomed Opt 2007; 12: 044016.
    1. Davies DJ, Su Z, Clancy MT, et al. Near-infrared spectroscopy in the monitoring of adult traumatic brain injury: a review. J Neurotrauma 2015; 32: 933–941.
    1. Keller E, Nadler A, Alkadhi H, et al. Noninvasive measurement of regional cerebral blood flow and regional cerebral blood volume by near-infrared spectroscopy and indocyanine green dye dilution. Neuroimage 2003; 20: 828–839.
    1. Leung TS, Aladangady N, Elwell CE, et al. A new method for the measurement of cerebral blood volume and total circulating blood volume using near infrared spatially resolved spectroscopy and indocyanine green: application and validation in neonates. Pediatr Res 2004; 55: 134–141.
    1. Elliott JT, Milej D, Gerega A, et al. Variance of time-of-flight distribution is sensitive to cerebral blood flow as demonstrated by ICG bolus-tracking measurements in adult pigs. Biomed Opt Express 2013; 4: 206–218.
    1. Keller E, Ishihara H, Nadler A, et al. Evaluation of brain toxicity following near infrared light exposure after indocyanine green dye injection. J Neurosci Meth 2002; 117: 23–31.
    1. Toczylowska B, Zieminska E, Goch G, et al. Neurotoxic effects of indocyanine green -cerebellar granule cell culture viability study. Biomed Opt Express 2014; 5: 800–816.
    1. Keller E, Nadler A, Niederer P, et al. A new subdural probe for combined intracranial pressure (ICP) and cerebral blood flow (CBF) monitoring. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2003; 145: 1111–1115. discussion 5.
    1. Keller E, Froehlich J, Muroi C, et al. Neuromonitoring in intensive care: a new brain tissue probe for combined monitoring of intracranial pressure (ICP) cerebral blood flow (CBF) and oxygenation. Acta Neurochir Suppl 2011; 110: 217–220.
    1. Liebert A, Wabnitz H, Steinbrink J, et al. Bed-side assessment of cerebral perfusion in stroke patients based on optical monitoring of a dye bolus by time-resolved diffuse reflectance. Neuroimage 2005; 24: 426–435.
    1. Kacprzak M, Liebert A, Sawosz P, et al. Time-resolved optical imager for assessment of cerebral oxygenation. J Biomed Opt 2007; 12: 034019.
    1. Milej D, Janusek D, Gerega A, et al. Optimization of the method for assessment of brain perfusion in humans using contrast-enhanced reflectometry: multidistance time-resolved measurements. J Biomed Opt 2015; 20: 106013.
    1. Liebert A, Wabnitz H, Obrig H, et al. Non-invasive detection of fluorescence from exogenous chromophores in the adult human brain. Neuroimage 2006; 31: 600–608.
    1. Milej D, Gerega A, Kacprzak M, et al. Time-resolved multi-channel optical system for assessment of brain oxygenation and perfusion by monitoring of diffuse reflectance and fluorescence. Opto-Electron Rev 2014; 22: 55–67.
    1. Weigl W, Milej D, Gerega A, et al. Assessment of cerebral perfusion in post-traumatic brain injury patients with the use of ICG-bolus tracking method. Neuroimage 2014; 85(Pt 1): 555–565.
    1. Kim MN, Edlow BL, Durduran T, et al. Continuous optical monitoring of cerebral hemodynamics during head-of-bed manipulation in brain-injured adults. Neurocrit Care 2014; 20: 443–453.
    1. Rothoerl RD, Schebesch KM, Faltermeier R, et al. Lack of correlation between Xenon133 and near infrared spectroscopy/indocyanine green rCBF measurements. Neurol Res 2003; 25: 528–532.
    1. Czosnyka M, Brady K, Reinhard M, et al. Monitoring of cerebrovascular autoregulation: facts, myths, and missing links. Neurocrit care 2009; 10: 373–386.
    1. Donnelly J, Aries MJ, Czosnyka M. Further understanding of cerebral autoregulation at the bedside: possible implications for future therapy. Expert Rev Neurother 2015; 15: 169–185.
    1. Czosnyka M, Miller C and Participants in the International Multidisciplinary Consensus Conference on Multimodality Monitoring. Monitoring of cerebral autoregulation. Neurocrit Care 2014; (21 Suppl 2): S95–S102.
    1. Zweifel C, Dias C, Smielewski P, et al. Continuous time-domain monitoring of cerebral autoregulation in neurocritical care. Med Eng Phys 2014; 36: 638–645.
    1. Liu X, Czosnyka M, Donnelly J, et al. Comparison of frequency and time domain methods of assessment of cerebral autoregulation in traumatic brain injury. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2015; 35: 248–256.
    1. Czosnyka M, Smielewski P, Kirkpatrick P, et al. Continuous assessment of the cerebral vasomotor reactivity in head injury. Neurosurgery 1997; 41: 11–17. discussion 7–9.
    1. Czosnyka M, Smielewski P, Kirkpatrick P, et al. Monitoring of cerebral autoregulation in head-injured patients. Stroke 1996; 27: 1829–1834.
    1. Steiner LA, Pfister D, Strebel SP, et al. Near-infrared spectroscopy can monitor dynamic cerebral autoregulation in adults. Neurocrit Care 2009; 10: 122–128.
    1. Cheng OS, Prowse S, Strong AJ. Oscillations in the near-infrared signal in patients with severe head injury. Acta Neurochir Suppl 2002; 81: 135–137.
    1. Zweifel C, Castellani G, Czosnyka M, et al. Noninvasive monitoring of cerebrovascular reactivity with near infrared spectroscopy in head-injured patients. J Neurotrauma 2010; 27: 1951–1958.
    1. Diedler J, Zweifel C, Budohoski KP, et al. The limitations of near-infrared spectroscopy to assess cerebrovascular reactivity: the role of slow frequency oscillations. Anesth Anal 2011; 113: 849–847.
    1. Highton D, Ghosh A, Tachtsidis I, et al. Monitoring cerebral autoregulation after brain injury: multimodal assessment of cerebral slow-wave oscillations using near-infrared spectroscopy. Anesth Analg 2015; 121: 198–205.
    1. Dias C, Silva MJ, Pereira E, et al. Optimal cerebral perfusion pressure management at bedside: a single-center pilot study. Neurocrit Care 2015; 23: 92–102.
    1. Tisdall MM, Tachtsidis I, Leung TS, et al. Near-infrared spectroscopic quantification of changes in the concentration of oxidized cytochrome c oxidase in the healthy human brain during hypoxemia. J Biomed Opt 2007; 12: 024002.
    1. Tisdall MM, Tachtsidis I, Leung TS, et al. Increase in cerebral aerobic metabolism by normobaric hyperoxia after traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg 2008; 109: 424–432.
    1. Tachtsidis I, Tisdall MM, Pritchard C, et al. Analysis of the changes in the oxidation of brain tissue cytochrome-c-oxidase in traumatic brain injury patients during hypercapnoea: a broadband NIRS study. Adv Exp Med Biol 2011; 701: 9–14.
    1. Ghosh A, Tachtsidis I, Kolyva C, et al. Normobaric hyperoxia does not change optical scattering or pathlength but does increase oxidised cytochrome C oxidase concentration in patients with brain injury. Adv Exp Med Biol 2013; 765: 67–72.
    1. Smith M, Elwell C. Near-infrared spectroscopy: shedding light on the injured brain. Anesth Analg 2009; 108: 1055–1057.
    1. Hashimoto K, Uruma G, Abo M. Activation of the prefrontal cortex during the wisconsin card sorting test (Keio Version) as measured by two-channel near-infrared spectroscopy in patients with traumatic brain injury. Eur Neurol 2008; 59: 24–30.
    1. Kontos AP, Huppert TJ, Beluk NH, et al. Brain activation during neurocognitive testing using functional near-infrared spectroscopy in patients following concussion compared to healthy controls. Brain Imag Behav 2014; 8: 621–634.
    1. Bhambhani Y, Maikala R, Farag M, et al. Reliability of near-infrared spectroscopy measures of cerebral oxygenation and blood volume during handgrip exercise in nondisabled and traumatic brain-injured subjects. J Rehabil Res Dev 2006; 43: 845–856.
    1. Helmich I, Saluja RS, Lausberg H, et al. Persistent postconcussive symptoms are accompanied by decreased functional brain oxygenation. J Neuropsychiat Clin Neurosci 2015; 27: 287–298. .
    1. Rodriguez Merzagora AC, Izzetoglu M, et al. Verbal working memory impairments following traumatic brain injury: an fNIRS investigation. Brain Imag Behav 2014; 8: 446–459.
    1. Hibino S, Mase M, Shirataki T, et al. Oxyhemoglobin changes during cognitive rehabilitation after traumatic brain injury using near infrared spectroscopy. Neurologia Medico-Chirurg 2013; 53: 299–303.
    1. Urban KJ, Barlow KM, Jimenez JJ, et al. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy reveals reduced interhemispheric cortical communication after pediatric concussion. J Neurotrauma 2015; 32: 833–840.
    1. Adelson PD, Nemoto E, Colak A, et al. The use of near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) in children after traumatic brain injury: a preliminary report. Acta Neurochir Suppl 1998; 71: 250–254.
    1. Wagner BP, Pfenninger J. Dynamic cerebral autoregulatory response to blood pressure rise measured by near-infrared spectroscopy and intracranial pressure. Crit Care Med 2002; 30: 2014–2021.
    1. Wong FY, Leung TS, Austin T, et al. Impaired autoregulation in preterm infants identified by using spatially resolved spectroscopy. Pediatrics 2008; 121: e604–e611.
    1. O'Leary H, Gregas MC, Limperopoulos C, et al. Elevated cerebral pressure passivity is associated with prematurity-related intracranial hemorrhage. Pediatrics 2009; 124: 302–309.
    1. Toet MC, Lemmers PM, van Schelven LJ, et al. Cerebral oxygenation and electrical activity after birth asphyxia: their relation to outcome. Pediatrics 2006; 117: 333–339.
    1. Drayna PC, Abramo TJ, Estrada C. Near-infrared spectroscopy in the critical setting. Pediatr Emerg Care 2011; 27: 432–439. quiz 40–42.
    1. van Bel F, Lemmers P, Naulaers G. Monitoring neonatal regional cerebral oxygen saturation in clinical practice: value and pitfalls. Neonatology 2008; 94: 237–244.
    1. Dhawan AP, D'Alessandro B, Fu X. Optical imaging modalities for biomedical applications. IEEE Rev Biomed Eng 2010; 3: 69–92.
    1. Levene MJ, Dombeck DA, Kasischke KA, et al. In vivo multiphoton microscopy of deep brain tissue. J Neurophysiol 2004; 91: 1908–1912.
    1. Cinalli G, Cappabianca P, de Falco R, et al. Current state and future development of intracranial neuroendoscopic surgery. Exp Rev Med Dev 2005; 2: 351–373.
    1. Wang X, Pang Y, Ku G, et al. Noninvasive laser-induced photoacoustic tomography for structural and functional in vivo imaging of the brain. Nat Biotechnol 2003; 21: 803–806.
    1. Obrig H. NIRS in clinical neurology – a ‘promising’ tool? Neuroimage 2014; 85(Pt 1): 535–546.
    1. Tisdall MM, Smith M. Multimodal monitoring in traumatic brain injury: current status and future directions. Br J Anaesth 2007; 99: 61–67.
    1. Dietres EIHSH, Kalisvaart M, Mik EG. Near infrared spectroscopy: an asset to the diagnosis and treatment of traumatic brain injury. Erasmus J Med 2011; 1: 23–26.
    1. Maas AI, Citerio G. Noninvasive monitoring of cerebral oxygenation in traumatic brain injury: a mix of doubts and hope. Intensive Care Med 2010; 36: 1283–1285.
    1. Kampfl A, Pfausler B, Denchev D, et al. Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) in patients with severe brain injury and elevated intracranial pressure. A pilot study. Acta Neurochir Suppl 1997; 70: 112–114.
    1. Vilke A, Bilskiene D, Saferis V, et al. Predictive value of early near-infrared spectroscopy monitoring of patients with traumatic brain injury. Medicina (Kaunas) 2014; 50: 263–268.

Source: PubMed

Sponsorer og samarbeidspartnere

Medisinsk tilstand

Legemiddelintervensjoner

3
Abonnere