Applications of Plasma-Liquid Systems: A Review

Fatemeh Rezaei, Patrick Vanraes, Anton Nikiforov, Rino Morent, Nathalie De Geyter, Fatemeh Rezaei, Patrick Vanraes, Anton Nikiforov, Rino Morent, Nathalie De Geyter

Abstract

Plasma-liquid systems have attracted increasing attention in recent years, owing to their high potential in material processing and nanoscience, environmental remediation, sterilization, biomedicine, and food applications. Due to the multidisciplinary character of this scientific field and due to its broad range of established and promising applications, an updated overview is required, addressing the various applications of plasma-liquid systems till now. In the present review, after a brief historical introduction on this important research field, the authors aimed to bring together a wide range of applications of plasma-liquid systems, including nanomaterial processing, water analytical chemistry, water purification, plasma sterilization, plasma medicine, food preservation and agricultural processing, power transformers for high voltage switching, and polymer solution treatment. Although the general understanding of plasma-liquid interactions and their applications has grown significantly in recent decades, it is aimed here to give an updated overview on the possible applications of plasma-liquid systems. This review can be used as a guide for researchers from different fields to gain insight in the history and state-of-the-art of plasma-liquid interactions and to obtain an overview on the acquired knowledge in this field up to now.

Keywords: agriculture and food safety; analytical chemistry; cancer therapy; nanomaterial processing; oil treatment; plasma-liquid interactions; polymeric solution treatment; sterilization and biomedicine; water treatment.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Set-up of the reproduced Gubkin’s experiment: Silver is dissolved at the anode placed in the liquid electrolyte and reduced at the plasma-electrolyte interface. Reprinted with permission from [3].
Figure 2
Figure 2
Plasma classification based on electron temperature and plasma density, adapted from [60].
Figure 3
Figure 3
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of gold NPs synthesized in (a) the ion irradiation mode and (b) the electron irradiation mode; (c) UV-vis absorption spectra of gold NPs. Reprinted from [76].
Figure 4
Figure 4
Liquid acts as (a) cathode and (b) anode. Reprinted with permission from [56].
Figure 5
Figure 5
A typical inductively coupled plasma (ICP) system. Reprinted with permission from [116].
Figure 6
Figure 6
A schematic representation of the electrospray ionization ion source. Reprinted from [119].
Figure 7
Figure 7
An intensified charge-coupled device (ICCD) camera picture of a typical ELCAD plasma operating between an electrolyte cathode and a tungsten anode. Reprinted with permission from [135].
Figure 8
Figure 8
Proposed decomposition kinetics of Atrazine, Lindane, Chlorfenvinfos and 2,4-dibromophenol by Hijosa-Valsero et al. (reprinted with permission from [144]) (a) and proposed electro-oxidation degradation pathway of Diclofenac by Zhao et al. (reprinted with permission from [152]) (b).
Figure 8
Figure 8
Proposed decomposition kinetics of Atrazine, Lindane, Chlorfenvinfos and 2,4-dibromophenol by Hijosa-Valsero et al. (reprinted with permission from [144]) (a) and proposed electro-oxidation degradation pathway of Diclofenac by Zhao et al. (reprinted with permission from [152]) (b).
Figure 9
Figure 9
(a) DBD batch reactor (Reactor 1) and (b) coaxial thin film DBD reactor (Reactor 2) used by Hijosa-Valsero et al. [154] to remove cyanide from distilled water; (c) removal of cyanide from water in both reactors (initial concentration of cyanide: 1 mg/L). Reprinted with permission from [154].
Figure 10
Figure 10
(a) Post-discharge evolution of three main plasma-generated chemical species in aqueous solution (pH = 3.3) and (b) comparison of inactivation of E. coli in three different solutions: HNO2 (nitrites only), HNO2/H2O2 (mixture of nitrites and H2O2), and PAW (plasma-activated water). Reprinted with permission from [190].
Figure 11
Figure 11
(a) VUV emission profile of an Ar plasma jet in a phosphorescing film used by Jablonowski et al., (b) VUV emission of an Ar discharge in ambient air, (c) VUV absorption of various test liquids at 0.2 mm sheath thickness and (d) wavelength at which 50% absorption of plasma-radiated VUV occurs of various test liquids as a function of their film thickness. Reprinted with permission from [208].
Figure 12
Figure 12
(a) The portable plasma spray designed by Kuo [218], (b) cutting an artery and leaving the bleeding to stop normally (top row); with plasma treatment the bleeding stops in half time (lower row) and (c) comparing the recovery progress of untreated (row 1) and plasma-treated (rows 2 and 3) cross cuts. Reprinted from [218].
Figure 13
Figure 13
(a) Two plasma devices used by Maisch et al. for decolonization of microorganisms on large skin areas, (b) decolonization of S. aureus using the two devices and (c) histological evaluation of ex vivo porcine skin after plasma treatment: (A) positive control, (B) negative control, (C) immediately after 15 min treatment, (D) 24 h after 15 min treatment, (E) 48 h after 15 min treatment and (F) 48 h of an untreated skin sample. Reprinted from [223].
Figure 14
Figure 14
(A) Schematic of the plasma device and the tooth bleaching process performed by Lee et al. [234], (B) the external bleaching effect of plasma treatment, (C) configuration of the tooth bleaching experiment and (D) concentration of hydroxyl radicals in the solutions containing tooth before and after plasma treatment. Reprinted with permission from [234].
Figure 15
Figure 15
H2O2 and NO2− concentration in plasma discharge generated in deionized water by Keidar et al. [249]; (a,b) correspond to plasma submerged in deionized water, while (c,d) correspond to plasma generated outside the water (water volume is 200 mL). Reprinted with permission from [249].
Figure 16
Figure 16
(a) The atmospheric radiofrequency (RF) atmospheric pressure He glow discharge used by Wang et al. [277], (b) schematic presentation of their mutation breeding protocol, (c) variation of the lethality rate with plasma exposure time and (d) images of the colonies before and after mutation; (left) a cultivated plate of the strains from plasma-treated spores, (W) a colony from the untreated wild strain, (Gm-1 (where m = 1–8)) the selected mutants from plasma-treated spores. Reprinted with permission from [277].
Figure 17
Figure 17
Long term effect of seed treatment by plasma and PAW on (a) tomato and (b) pepper plant growth. Reprinted from [286].
Figure 18
Figure 18
Typical Schlieren images of the pre-breakdown disturbances between point-plane electrodes in pure transformer oil; (a) negative point: 60 kV and 2 µs pulse duration, (b) positive point: 45 kV and 2 µs pulse duration, (c) negative point: 45 kV and 9–6 µs pulse duration and (d) positive point: 45 kV and 2–7 µs pulse duration. Reproduced by permission of the Institution of Engineering & Technology [30].
Figure 19
Figure 19
Average velocity of (a) positive and (b) negative streamers versus applied voltage [RP: reduced pressure]. Reprinted with permission from [334].
Figure 20
Figure 20
(a) Schematic representation of the atmospheric pressure argon plasma jet directly submerged into the liquid phase for PEPT used by Rezaei et al. [345,346], (b) 3D image of the physical properties and SEM images of PLA nanofibers produced from plasma-treated solutions. Reprinted from [345].

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