Intermittent fasting, a possible priming tool for host defense against SARS-CoV-2 infection: Crosstalk among calorie restriction, autophagy and immune response

Md Abdul Hannan, Md Ataur Rahman, Md Saidur Rahman, Abdullah Al Mamun Sohag, Raju Dash, Khandkar Shaharina Hossain, Mithila Farjana, Md Jamal Uddin, Md Abdul Hannan, Md Ataur Rahman, Md Saidur Rahman, Abdullah Al Mamun Sohag, Raju Dash, Khandkar Shaharina Hossain, Mithila Farjana, Md Jamal Uddin

Abstract

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative pathogen of deadly Coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) pandemic, which emerged as a major threat to public health across the world. Although there is no clear gender or socioeconomic discrimination in the incidence of COVID-19, individuals who are older adults and/or with comorbidities and compromised immunity have a relatively higher risk of contracting this disease. Since no specific drug has yet been discovered, strengthening immunity along with maintaining a healthy living is the best way to survive this disease. As a healthy practice, calorie restriction in the form of intermittent fasting (IF) in several clinical settings has been reported to promote several health benefits, including priming of the immune response. This dietary restriction also activates autophagy, a cell surveillance system that boosts up immunity. With these prevailing significance in priming host defense, IF could be a potential strategy amid this outbreak to fighting off SARS-CoV-2 infection. Currently, no review so far available proposing IF as an encouraging strategy in the prevention of COVID-19. A comprehensive review has therefore been planned to highlight the beneficial role of fasting in immunity and autophagy, that underlie the possible defense against SARS-CoV-2 infection. The COVID-19 pathogenesis and its impact on host immune response have also been briefly outlined. This review aimed at revisiting the immunomodulatory potential of IF that may constitute a promising preventive approach against COVID-19.

Keywords: Autophagy; COVID-19; Calorie restriction; Cytokine storm; Immune responses; SARS-COV-2.

Conflict of interest statement

No conflict of interest from authors regarding the publication of this manuscript.

Copyright © 2020 European Federation of Immunological Societies. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Figures

Graphical abstract
Graphical abstract
Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Autophagy-dependent innate immune response. Autophagy may induce innate immunity by delivering viral nucleic acids to endosomes containing Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7), which stimulates the production of type 1 interferons (IFN) that, in turn, attract immune cells to the site of infection.
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Fasting mediates autophagy. Autophagy receives fasting signals through two metabolic sensors such as mTOR and AMPK. Under the condition of nutrient depletion, mTOR detaches from the ULK1 complex leading to the activation of autophagy. Whereas, AMPK negatively regulates mTOR, and also directly activates ULK1 complex, thereby acting as a positive regulator of autophagy in response to nutrient depletion. Beclin1 complex is another autophagy activator that is negatively regulated by mTOR. Once autophagy is initiated, cytoplasmic elements (cargo) to be recycled are engulfed into double-membrane vesicles, termed as autophagosomes, which fuse with lysosomes forming autolysosomes, where cargos are degraded. Autophagy is a multistep process that includes (1) initiation, (2) membrane nucleation and phagophore formation, (3) phagophore elongation, (4) docking and fusion with the lysosome, and (5) degradation, which are regulated by autophagy-related proteins (ATGs). mTOR, mechanistic target of rapamycin; AMPK, AMP-activated protein kinase.
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Fasting as an intervention tool against SARS-CoV-2 infection. Fasting can prime the host defense system through activating multiple physiological processes, including immune responses and autophagy. In case of immune responses, the pulmonary alveolar epithelial cells that are infected with SARS-CoV-2 release damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) such as nucleic acids, which are recognized by adjacent epithelial cells and resident macrophages, triggering the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines (IL-6, IP-10, MIP1α, and MCP1). These mediators attract inflammatory cells, including macrophages, monocytes, and T cells to the site of infection, promoting further inflammation. In the dysfunctional immune response, there is a massive infiltration of inflammatory cells and further accumulation of pro-inflammatory mediators (IL-1β, IL-2, IL-6, IL-7, IL-10, G-CSF, IP-10, MCP-1, and TNF-α), leading to an immunopathological condition, referred to as ‘cytokine storm’ that causes multi-organ failure. On the contrary, in protective immune response, the antigen-presenting cells (macrophages and dendritic cells) present viral antigens to T cells which stimulate both cell-mediated and humoral immunity. CD8 + T cells kill virus-infected cells. Of the two subsets of CD4+, Th1 cells either activate natural killer cells or CD8 + T cells or may remain as memory T cells. Whereas, upon stimulation from CD4 + Th2 cells, B cells are converted into plasma B cells which generate SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies that neutralize viruses. Another fasting-mediated cellular process is autophagy that either degrades viral particles (xenophagy) or activates innate and adaptive immunity. MIP1α, macrophage inflammatory protein 1α; MCP-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1; IP-10, interferon-γ-inducible protein 10; G-CSF, Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor.

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