Neurofeedback: A Comprehensive Review on System Design, Methodology and Clinical Applications

Hengameh Marzbani, Hamid Reza Marateb, Marjan Mansourian, Hengameh Marzbani, Hamid Reza Marateb, Marjan Mansourian

Abstract

Neurofeedback is a kind of biofeedback, which teaches self-control of brain functions to subjects by measuring brain waves and providing a feedback signal. Neurofeedback usually provides the audio and or video feedback. Positive or negative feedback is produced for desirable or undesirable brain activities, respectively. In this review, we provided clinical and technical information about the following issues: (1) Various neurofeedback treatment protocols i.e. alpha, beta, alpha/theta, delta, gamma, and theta; (2) Different EEG electrode placements i.e. standard recording channels in the frontal, temporal, central, and occipital lobes; (3) Electrode montages (unipolar, bipolar); (4) Types of neurofeedback i.e. frequency, power, slow cortical potential, functional magnetic resonance imaging, and so on; (5) Clinical applications of neurofeedback i.e. treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, anxiety, depression, epilepsy, insomnia, drug addiction, schizophrenia, learning disabilities, dyslexia and dyscalculia, autistic spectrum disorders and so on as well as other applications such as pain management, and the improvement of musical and athletic performance; and (6) Neurofeedback softwares. To date, many studies have been conducted on the neurofeedback therapy and its effectiveness on the treatment of many diseases. Neurofeedback, like other treatments, has its own pros and cons. Although it is a non-invasive procedure, its validity has been questioned in terms of conclusive scientific evidence. For example, it is expensive, time-consuming and its benefits are not long-lasting. Also, it might take months to show the desired improvements. Nevertheless, neurofeedback is known as a complementary and alternative treatment of many brain dysfunctions. However, current research does not support conclusive results about its efficacy.

Keywords: Brain diseases; Brain waves; Complementary therapies; Electroencephalography; Neurofeedback.

Figures

Figure 1.
Figure 1.
The 10–20 electrode placement system and the name of the skull regions.

References

    1. Allen J. J., Harmon-Jones E., Cavender J. H. ( 2001). Manipulation of frontal EEG asymmetry through biofeedback alters self-reported emotional responses and facial EMG. Psychophysiology, 38( 4), 685– 693.
    1. Angelakis E., Stathopoulou S., Frymiare J. L., Green D. L., Lubar J. F., Kounios J. ( 2007). EEG neurofeedback: a brief overview and an example of peak alpha frequency training for cognitive enhancement in the elderly. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 21( 1), 110– 129.
    1. Bartholdy S., Musiat P., Campbell I. C., Schmidt U. ( 2013). The potential of neurofeedback in the treatment of Eating Disorders: A Review of the Literature. European Eating Disorders Review, 21( 6), 456– 463.
    1. Bauer H., Pllana A. ( 2014). EEG-based local brain activity feedback training-tomographic neurofeedback. Frontiers Human Neuroscience, 8, 1005. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.01005.
    1. Beatty J., Greenberg A., Deibler W. P., O’Hanlon J. F. ( 1974). Operant control of occipital theta rhythm affects performance in a radar monitoring task. Science, 183( 4127), 871– 873.
    1. Breteler M. H., Arns M., Peters S., Giepmans I., Verhoeven L. ( 2010). Improvements in spelling after QEEG-based neurofeedback in dyslexia: a randomized controlled treatment study. Applied Psychophysiol Biofeedback, 35( 1), 5– 11. doi: 10.1007/s10484-009-9105-2.
    1. Budzynski T. ( 2009a). Introduction to quantitative EEG and neurofeedback: Advanced theory and applications ( 2nd ed.). Amsterdam, Elsevier: Academic Press.
    1. Budzynski T. ( 2009b). Introduction to quantitative EEG and neurofeedback: Advanced theory and applications ( 2nd ed.). Amsterdam, Elsevier: Academic Press.
    1. Christiansen H., Reh V., Schmidt M. H., Rief W. ( 2014). Slow cortical potential neurofeedback and self-management training in outpatient care for children with ADHD: Study protocol and first preliminary results of a randomized controlled trial. Frontiers Human Neuroscience, 8, 943. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00943.
    1. Coben R., Linden M., Myers T. E. ( 2010). Neurofeedback for autistic spectrum disorder: A review of the literature. Applied Psychophysiol Biofeedback, 35( 1), 83– 105. doi: 10.1007/s10484-009-9117-y.
    1. Collura T. F. ( 2000). Practical Issues Concerning EEG Biofeedback Devices, Protocols and Methods (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from .
    1. Collura T. F., Guan J., Tarrant J., Bailey J., Starr F. ( 2010). EEG biofeedback case studies using live Z-score training and a normative database. Journal of Neurotherapy, 14( 1), 22– 46.
    1. Comparison of neurofeedback software ( 2015, April 11). Retrieved from .
    1. Cott A., Pavloski R. P., Black A. H. ( 1979). Reducing epileptic seizures through operant conditioning of central nervous system activity: Procedural variables. Science, 203( 4375), 73– 75.
    1. Cowan J., Markham L. ( 1994, March). EEG biofeedback for the attention problems of autism: A case study. In 25th the Annual Meeting of the Association for applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback.
    1. Demos J. N. ( 2005). Getting started with neurofeedback ( 1th ed.). New York: W.W. Norton.
    1. Dempster T. ( 2012). An investigation into the optimum training paradigm for alpha electroencephalographic biofeedback (PhD Thesis). U.K.: Canterbury Christ Church University.
    1. Dias A. M., Van Deusen A. M., Oda E., Bonfim M. R. ( 2012). Clinical efficacy of a new automated hemoencephalographic neurofeedback protocol. Spanish Journal of Psychology, 15( 3), 930– 941.
    1. Edmonds W. A., Tenenbaum G. ( 2011). Case studies in applied psychophysiology: Neurofeedback and biofeedback treatments for advances in human performance. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
    1. Egner T., Gruzelier J. H. ( 2001). Learned self-regulation of EEG frequency components affects attention and event-related brain potentials in humans. Neuroreport, 12( 18), 4155– 4159.
    1. Egner T., Gruzelier J. H. ( 2003). Ecological validity of neuro-feedback: modulation of slow wave EEG enhances musical performance. Neuroreport, 14( 9), 1221– 1224.
    1. Egner T., Gruzelier J. H. ( 2004). EEG Biofeedback of low beta band components: frequency-specific effects on variables of attention and event-related brain potentials. Clinical Neurophysiology, 115( 1), 131–139. doi: 10.1016/S1388-2457(03)00353-5.
    1. Escolano C., Aguilar M., Minguez J. ( 2011). EEG-based upper alpha neurofeedback training improves working memory performance. International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2011, 2327–2330. doi: 10.1109/IEMBS.2011.6090651.
    1. Escolano C., Olivan B., Lopez-del-Hoyo Y., Garcia-Campayo J., Minguez J. ( 2012). Double-blind single-session neuro-feedback training in upper-alpha for cognitive enhancement of healthy subjects. Conference Proceedings of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2012, 4643–4647. doi: 10.1109/EMBC.2012.6347002.
    1. Evans J. R. ( 2007). Handbook of neurofeedback: dynamics and clinical applications. New York: Haworth Medical Press.
    1. Evans J. R., Abarbanel A. ( 1999). Introduction to quantitative EEG and neurofeedback. San Diego, Calif: Academic Press.
    1. Fuchs T., Birbaumer N., Lutzenberger W., Gruzelier J. H., Kaiser J. ( 2003). Neurofeedback treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children: A comparison with methylphenidate. Applied Psychophysiol Biofeedback, 28( 1), 1– 12.
    1. Gevensleben H., Holl B., Albrecht B., Vogel C., Schlamp D., Kratz O., et al. ( 2009). Is neurofeedback an efficacious treatment for ADHD? A randomised controlled clinical trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50( 7), 780– 789. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02033.
    1. Gil Y., Li G., Lee J. ( 2009). Integrated real-time neurofeedback system to raise the frontal lobe activity: Design and Implementation. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 2009, 845– 848.
    1. Gnecchi J. A. G., Herrera Garcia J. C., de Dios Ortiz Alvarado J. ( 2007, September). Auxiliary Neurofeedback System for Diagnostic of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Proceedings of the Electronics, Robotics and Automotive Mechanics Conference (pp. 135–138). Mexico: Morelos. doi: 10.1109/CERMA.2007.4367674.
    1. Gruzelier J. ( 2009). A theory of alpha/theta neurofeedback, creative performance enhancement, long distance functional connectivity and psychological integration. Cognitive Processing, 10( 1), 101–109. doi: 10.1007/s10339-008-0248-5.
    1. Hammer B. U., Colbert A. P., Brown K. A., Ilioi E. C. ( 2011). Neurofeedback for insomnia: a pilot study of Z-score SMR and individualized protocols. Applied Psychophysiol Biofeedback, 36( 4), 251– 264. doi: 10.1007/s10484-011-9165-y.
    1. Hanslmayr S., Sauseng P., Doppelmayr M., Schabus M., Klimesch W. ( 2005). Increasing Individual Upper Alpha Power by Neurofeedback Improves Cognitive Performance in Human Subjects. Applied Psychophysiol Biofeedback, 30( 1), 1– 10. doi: 10.1007/s10484-005-2169-8.
    1. Hardt J. V., Kamiya J. ( 1978). Anxiety change through electroencephalographic alpha feedback seen only in high anxiety subjects. Science, 201( 4350), 79– 81.
    1. Heinrich H., Gevensleben H., Strehl U. ( 2007). Annotation: Neurofeedback-train your brain to train behaviour. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48( 1), 3– 16. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01665.x.
    1. Hord D. J., Tracy M. L., Lubin A., Johnson L. ( 1975). Effect of Self-Enhanced EEG Alpha on Performance and Mood After Two Nights of Sleep Loss. Psychophysiology, 12( 5), 585– 590.
    1. Horrell T., El-Baz A., Baruth J., Tasman A., Sokhadze G., Stewart C., et al. ( 2010). Neurofeedback Effects on Evoked and Induced EEG Gamma Band Reactivity to Drug-related Cues in Cocaine Addiction. Journal of Neurotherapy, 14( 3), 195–216. doi: 10.1080/10874208.2010.501498.
    1. Hughes J. R. ( 2008). Gamma, fast, and ultrafast waves of the brain: Their relationships with epilepsy and behavior. Epilepsy & Behavior, 13( 1), 25– 31. doi: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2008.01.011.
    1. Hurt E., Arnold L. E., Lofthouse N. ( 2014). Quantitative EEG Neurofeedback for the Treatment of Pediatric Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Autism Spectrum Disorders, Learning Disorders, and Epilepsy. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 23( 3), 465– 486.
    1. Hynd G. W., Lorys A. R., Semrud-Clikeman M., Nieves N., Huettner M. I., Lahey B. B. ( 1991). Attention deficit disorder without hyperactivity: a distinct behavioral and neurocognitive syndrome. Journal of Child Neurology, 6( 1), S37–43.
    1. Ibric V. L., Dragomirescu L. G. ( 2009). Neurofeedback in pain management. In Budzyknski T. H., Budzynski H. K., Evans J. R., Abarbanel A. (Eds.). Introduction to quantitative EEG and neurofeedback: Advanced theory and applications ( 2nd ed.) (pp. 417–451). Amsterdam, Elsevier: Academic Press.
    1. Kaplan B. J. ( 1975). Biofeedback in Epileptics: Equivocal Relationship of Reinforced EEG Frequency to Seizure Reduction. Epilepsia, 16( 3), 477–485. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1157.1975.tb06076.x.
    1. Karimi M., Haghshenas S., Rostami R. ( 2011). Neurofeedback and autism spectrum: A case study. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 30, 1472– 1475. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.285.
    1. Klimesch W. ( 1999). EEG alpha and theta oscillations reflect cognitive and memory performance: a review and analysis. Brain Research Reviews, 29( 2–3), 169– 195. doi: 10.1016/S0165-0173(98)00056-3.
    1. Kouijzer M. E. J., van Schie H. T., de Moor J. M. H., Gerrits B. J. L., Buitelaar J. K. ( 2010). Neurofeedback treatment in autism. Preliminary findings in behavioral, cognitive, and neurophysiological functioning. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 4( 3), 386– 399. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2009.10.007.
    1. Kropotov J. ( 2010). Introduction to Quantitative EEG, event-related potentials and neurotherapy. Amsterdam, Elsevier: Academic Press.
    1. Kuhlman W. N., Allison T. ( 1977). EEG feedback training in the treatment of epilepsy: Some questions and some answers. The Pavlovian Journal of Biological Science, 12( 2), 112– 122. doi: 10.1007/bf03004498.
    1. Lecuyer A., Lotte F., Reilly R. B., Leeb R., Hirose M., Slater M. ( 2008). Brain-Computer Interfaces, Virtual Reality, and Videogames. Computer, 41( 10), 66– 72. doi: 10.1109/mc.2008.410.
    1. Leins U., Goth G., Hinterberger T., Klinger C., Rumpf N., Strehl U. ( 2007). Neurofeedback for Children with ADHD: A Comparison of SCP and Theta/Beta Protocols. Applied Psychophysiol Biofeedback, 32( 2), 73– 88. doi: 10.1007/s10484-007-9031-0.
    1. Lévesque J., Beauregard M., Mensour B. ( 2006a). Effect of neurofeedback training on the neural substrates of selective attention in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Neuroscience Letters, 394( 3), 216– 221.
    1. Lévesque J., Beauregard M., Mensour B. ( 2006b). Effect of neurofeedback training on the neural substrates of selective attention in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Neuroscience Letters, 394( 3), 216– 221. doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2005.10.100.
    1. Linden M., Habib T., Radojevic V. ( 1996). A controlled study of the effects of EEG biofeedback on cognition and behavior of children with attention deficit disorder and learning disabilities. Biofeedback & Self Regulation, 21( 3), 297. doi: 10.1007/bf02214740.
    1. Lubar J., Bahler W. W. ( 1976). Behavioral management of epileptic seizures following EEG biofeedback training of the sensorimotor rhythm. Biofeedback and Self-regulation, 1( 1), 77–104. doi: 10.1007/bf00998692.
    1. Lubar J. F., Shabsin H. S., Natelson S. E., Holder G. S., Whitsett S. F., Pamplin W. E., et al. ( 1981). EEG operant conditioning in intractable epileptics. Archives of Neurology, 38( 11), 700– 704.
    1. Lubar J. F., Swartwood M. O., Swartwood J. N., O’Donnell P. H. ( 1995). Evaluation of the effectiveness of EEG neurofeedback training for ADHD in a clinical setting as measured by changes in TOVA scores, behavioral ratings, and WISC-R performance. Biofeedback and Self-regulation, 20( 1), 83– 99.
    1. Lucido M. ( 2012). College of social and behavioural sciences. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Walden University.
    1. Markovska-Simoska S., Pop-Jordanova N., Georgiev D. ( 2008). Simultaneous EEG and EMG biofeedback for peak performance in musicians. Prilozi, 29( 1), 239– 252.
    1. Martindale C., Armstrong J. ( 1974). The relationship of creativity to cortical activation and its operant control. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 124( 2), 311– 320.
    1. Mauro T., Cermak S. A. ( 2006). The Everything Parent’s Guide to Sensory Integration Disorder: Get the Right Diagnosis, Understand Treatments, and Advocate for Your Child. USA: Adams Media Corporation.
    1. McCarthy-Jones S. ( 2012). Taking back the brain: could neuro-feedback training be effective for relieving distressing auditory verbal hallucinations in patients with schizophrenia? Schizophrenia Bulletin, 38( 4), 678– 682. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbs006.
    1. Moore N. ( 2000). A review of EEG biofeedback treatment of anxiety disorders. Clinical EEG and Neuroscience (Electroencephalography), 31( 1), 1– 6.
    1. Moradi A., Pouladi F., Pishva N., Rezaei B., Torshabi M., Mehrjerdi Z. A. ( 2011). Treatment of Anxiety Disorder with Neurofeedback: Case Study. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 30, 103–107. doi: j.sbspro.2011.10.021.
    1. Orlandi M. A., Greco D. ( 2004, August). A randomized, doubleblind clinical trial of EEG neurofeedback treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Society for Neuronal Regulation, Fort Lauderdale, FL.
    1. Othmer S. ( 2007). Progress in neurofeedback for the autism spectrum. Paper presented at the 38th Annual Meeting of the Association for Applied Psychophysiology & Biofeedback Monterey, Canada, 15–18 February 2007.
    1. Palsson O. S., Pope A. T., Ball J. D., Turner M. J., Nevin S., deBeus R. ( 2001). Neurofeedback videogame ADHD technology: Results of the first concept study. Paper presented at the annual meeting of Association for Applied Psychophysiology & Biofeedback, Research Triangle Park, NC.
    1. Pascual-Marqui R. D., Michel C. M., Lehmann D. ( 1994). Low resolution electromagnetic tomography: a new method for localizing electrical activity in the brain. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 18( 1), 49– 65.
    1. Perreau-Linck E., Lessard N., Lévesque J., Beauregard M. ( 2010). Effects of neurofeedback training on inhibitory capacities in ADHD children: A single-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Journal of Neurotherapy, 14( 3), 229– 242. doi: 10.1080/10874208.2010.501514.
    1. Plotkin W. B., Rice K. M. ( 1981). Biofeedback as a placebo: anxiety reduction facilitated by training in either suppression or enhancement of alpha brainwaves. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 49( 4), 590.
    1. Quy R. J., Hutt S. J., Forrest S. ( 1979). Sensorimotor rhythm feedback training and epilepsy: Some methodological and conceptual issues. Biological Psychology, 9( 2), 129–149. doi: 10.1016/0301-0511(79)90059-0.
    1. Rasey H., Lubar J. F., McIntyre A., Zoffuto A., Abbott P. L. ( 1995). EEG biofeedback for the enhancement of attentional processing in normal college students. Journal of Neurotherapy, 1( 3), 15– 21. doi: 10.1300/J184v01n03_03.
    1. Raymond J., Sajid I., Parkinson L. A., Gruzelier J. H. ( 2005). Biofeedback and dance performance: A preliminary investigation. Applied Psychophysiology Biofeedback, 30( 1), 65– 73.
    1. Raymond J., Varney C., Parkinson L. A., Gruzelier J. H. ( 2005). The effects of alpha/theta neurofeedback on personality and mood. Cognitive Brain Research, 23( 2), 287– 292.
    1. Regestein Q., Buckland G., Pegram G. ( 1973). Effect of daytime alpha rhythm maintenance on subsequent sleep. Psychosomatic Medicine, 35( 5), 415– 418.
    1. Ros T., Moseley M. J., Bloom P. A., Benjamin L., Parkinson L. A., Gruzelier J. H. ( 2009). Optimizing microsurgical skills with EEG neurofeedback. BMC Neuroscience, 10( 1), 87. doi: 10.1186/1471-2202-10-87.
    1. Rossi-Izquierdo M., Ernst A., Soto-Varela A., Santos-Pérez S., Faraldo-García A., Sesar-Ignacio Á., Basta D. ( 2013). Vibrotactile neurofeedback balance training in patients with Parkinson’s disease: Reducing the number of falls. Gait & Posture, 37( 2), 195– 200.
    1. Schmeidler G., Lewis L. ( 1971). Mood changes after alpha feedback training. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 32( 3), 709– 710.
    1. Sichel A. G., Fehmi L. G., Goldstein D. M. ( 1995). Positive outcome with neurofeedback treatment in a case of mild autism. Journal of Neurotherapy, 1( 1), 60– 64. doi: 10.1300/J184v01n01_08.
    1. Staufenbiel S., Brouwer A. M., Keizer A., Van Wouwe N. ( 2014). Effect of beta and gamma neurofeedback on memory and intelligence in the elderly. Biological Psychology, 95, 74– 85.
    1. Sterman M. B., Macdonald L. R. ( 1978). Effects of central cortical EEG feedback training on incidence of poorly controlled seizures. Epilepsia, 19( 3), 207– 222.
    1. Sterman M. B., Macdonald L. R., Stone R. K. ( 1974). Biofeedback Training of the Sensorimotor Electroencephalogram Rhythm in Man: Effects on Epilepsy. Epilepsia, 15( 3), 395– 416. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1157.1974.tb04016.x.
    1. Sürmeli T., Ertem A. ( 2007). EEG neurofeedback treatment of patients with Down Syndrome. Journal of Neurotherapy, 11( 1), 63– 68.
    1. Sürmeli T., Ertem A. ( 2011). Obsessive Compulsive Disorder and the Efficacy of qEEG-Guided Neurofeedback Treatment: A Case Series. Clinical EEG and Neuroscience, 42( 3), 195– 201. doi: 10.1177/155005941104200310.
    1. Surmeli T., Ertem A., Eralp E., Kos I. H. ( 2012). Schizophrenia and the efficacy of qEEG-guided neurofeedback treatment: a clinical case series. Clinical EEG and Neuroscience, 43( 2), 133– 144. doi: 10.1177/1550059411429531.
    1. Thompson L., Thompson M., Reid A. ( 2010). Neurofeedback outcomes in clients with Asperger’s syndrome. Applied Psychophysiol Biofeedback, 35( 1), 63– 81.
    1. Thompson M., Thompson L. ( 2003). The neurofeedback book: An introduction to basic concepts in applied psychophysiology. Wheat Ridge, CO: Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback.
    1. Tozzo C. A., Elfner L. F., May J. G. ( 1988). EEG biofeedback and relaxation training in the control of epileptic seizures. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 6( 3), 185– 194.
    1. Vernon D., Egner T., Cooper N., Compton T., Neilands C., Sheri A., et al. ( 2003). The effect of training distinct neurofeedback protocols on aspects of cognitive performance. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 47( 1), 75– 85. doi: 10.1016/S0167-8760(02)00091-0.
    1. Vernon D. J. ( 2005). Can neurofeedback training enhance performance? An evaluation of the evidence with implications for future research. Applied Psychophysiol Biofeedback, 30( 4), 347–364. doi: 10.1007/s10484-005-8421-4.
    1. Walker J. E. ( 2010). Using QEEG-guided neurofeedback for epilepsy versus standardized protocols: Enhanced effectiveness? Applied Psychophysiol Biofeedback, 35( 1), 29– 30. doi: 10.1007/s10484-009-9123-0.
    1. Walker J. E. ( 2011). QEEG-guided neurofeedback for recurrent migraine headaches. Clinical EEG and Neuroscience, 42( 1), 59– 61.
    1. Wang Q., Sourina O. ( 2013). Real-time mental arithmetic task recognition from EEG signals. IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering, 21( 2), 225– 232. doi: 10.1109/TNSRE.2012.2236576.
    1. Wenya N., Lanshin C., Rodrigues J. P., Feng W., Peng Un M., Pui-In M., et al. ( 2012). Neurofeedback for the treatment of schizophrenia: Case study. Paper presented at the Virtual Environments Human-Computer Interfaces and Measurement Systems (VECIMS), 2012 IEEE International Conference on, Tianjin, China, 2–4 July 2012.
    1. Yan N., Wang J., Liu M., Zong L., Jiao Y., Yue J., et al. ( 2008). Designing a Brain-computer Interface Device for Neurofeedback Using Virtual Environments. Medical and Biological Engineering, 28( 3), 167–172.
    1. Zandi-Mehran Y., Firoozabadi M., Rostami R. ( 2014). Improvement of Neurofeedback Therapy for Improved Attention Through Facilitation of Brain Activity Using Local Sinusoidal Extremely Low Frequency Magnetic Field Exposure. Clinical EEG and Neuroscience, 46( 2), 100– 12. doi: 10.1177/1550059414524403.
    1. Zoefel B., Huster R. J., Herrmann C. S. ( 2011). Neurofeedback training of the upper alpha frequency band in EEG improves cognitive performance. NeuroImage, 54( 2), 1427– 1431. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.08.078.

Source: PubMed

Sponsorer og samarbeidspartnere

Medisinsk tilstand

Legemiddelintervensjoner

3
Abonnere