Prostaglandin E2 As a Modulator of Viral Infections

Willem J Sander, Hester G O'Neill, Carolina H Pohl, Willem J Sander, Hester G O'Neill, Carolina H Pohl

Abstract

Viral infections are a major cause of infectious diseases worldwide. Inflammation and the immune system are the major host defenses against these viral infection. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), an eicosanoid generated by cyclooxygenases, has been shown to modulate inflammation and the immune system by regulating the expression/concentration of cytokines. The effect of PGE2 on viral infection and replication is cell type- and virus-family-dependent. The host immune system can be modulated by PGE2, with regards to immunosuppression, inhibition of nitrogen oxide (NO) production, inhibition of interferon (IFN) and apoptotic pathways, and inhibition of viral receptor expression. Furthermore, PGE2 can play a role in viral infection directly by increasing the production and release of virions, inhibiting viral binding and replication, and/or stimulating viral gene expression. PGE2 may also have a regulatory role in the induction of autoimmunity and in signaling via Toll-like receptors. In this review the known effects of PGE2 on the pathogenesis of various infections caused by herpes simplex virus, rotavirus, influenza A virus and human immunodeficiency virus as well the therapeutic potential of PGE2 are discussed.

Keywords: immunity; inflammation; prostaglandin E2; therapeutic agents; viral infection.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
The biosynthesis pathway of PGE2. (A) Production of PGE2 is initiated with the liberation of AA by cPLA2. Arachidonic acid can then enter one of three pathways. (B) Lipoxygenase (LOX) converts AA to hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid (HPETE) which is converted to leukotriene A2 (LTA2) and is further converted in the remainder of the leukotriene family (B4–E4) which are mainly responsible for lipid signaling. (C) Cytochrome P450 can also use AA as substrate which subsequently produces 16, 20- hydroxyicosatetraenoic acid (HETE) and 14, 15-epoxyeicosatrienoic acid (EET) which function in autocrine and paracrine signaling. (D) Arachidonic acid is converted to PGH2 by die COX isoenzymes. (E) Prostaglandin H2 is the precursor for all the other prostaglandins and can be converted into PGE2 (via PGE2 synthase [cPGES, mPGES-1 and mPGES-2)], PGD2 (PGD2 synthase), PGI2 (Prostacyclin synthase), TXA2 (TX synthase) which functions as a vasoconstrictor. (F) PGF2α can be produced from PGH2 directly by endoproxide reductase or form PGE2 via 9-ketoreductase. Adapted from Jenkins et al. (2009).
Figure 2
Figure 2
PGE2-EP receptor signaling pathways. Following the synthesis of PGE2, the prostanoid is exported and signals via four known receptors (EP1–EP4). The receptors then active cAMP/PKA/CREB signaling pathways which are responsible for the major suppressive and regulatory functions of PGE2. Adapted from Nasrallah et al. (2014) and Sugimoto and Narumiya (2007).
Figure 3
Figure 3
The interaction between the innate and adaptive immunity in the presence of pathogens. (A) Upon viral infection the infected cell presents the viral antigen on the major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-I. (B) Cytotoxic T cells (Tc) and natural killer cells (NK) can then bind to these viral antigens and (C) lead to the destruction of the cell. (D) Viral particles neutralized by pre-existing antibodies can be engulfed by macrophages via antibody neutralization. (E) This leads to viral antigens being presented by dendritic cells (DC), shown in blue on MHC-ll and the resulting antigen presenting cells (APC) activating Tc and NK and releasing cytokines. (F) T helper cells bind to these viral antigens and differentiate into Th1 or Th2 responses. T helper cells are also responsible for the activation of B cells. (G) The B cells transform into plasma cells which start producing antibodies specific toward the antigen and differentiate into B memory cells. (H) Toll-like receptors are an integral part of the innate immunity and function via two pathways activating NFκB, mitogen-activated kinases and type I IFN. (I). The complement system composes of different pathways that lead to the destruction of infected cells. Adapted from Rouse and Sehrawat (2010).
Figure 4
Figure 4
Effect of PGE2 on immune responses. Prostaglandin E2 suppresses the Th1- and natural killer (NK) cell-mediated type I form of immunity at their sites of induction, while supporting local acute inflammation and phagocyte mediated immunity. Prostaglandin E2 regulates the influx and activity of the effector vs. the regulatory cells into affected tissues. Purple indicates effects on immune suppression; blue indicates effects on immunity against intracellular pathogens, while green indicates effects on extracellular pathogens; ↑ increase; ↓ decrease. Interleukin (IL), interferon (IFN), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), Immunoglobulin (Ig). Toll-like receptors (TLRs) Adapted from Kalinski (2012).

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