Effectiveness of conditional cash transfers (Afya credits incentive) to retain women in the continuum of care during pregnancy, birth and the postnatal period in Kenya: a cluster-randomised trial

Fedra Vanhuyse, Oliver Stirrup, Aloyce Odhiambo, Tom Palmer, Sarah Dickin, Jolene Skordis, Neha Batura, Hassan Haghparast-Bidgoli, Alex Mwaki, Andrew Copas, Fedra Vanhuyse, Oliver Stirrup, Aloyce Odhiambo, Tom Palmer, Sarah Dickin, Jolene Skordis, Neha Batura, Hassan Haghparast-Bidgoli, Alex Mwaki, Andrew Copas

Abstract

Objectives: Given high maternal and child mortality rates, we assessed the impact of conditional cash transfers (CCTs) to retain women in the continuum of care (antenatal care (ANC), delivery at facility, postnatal care (PNC) and child immunisation).

Design: We conducted an unblinded 1:1 cluster-randomised controlled trial.

Setting: 48 health facilities in Siaya County, Kenya were randomised. The trial ran from May 2017 to December 2019.

Participants: 2922 women were recruited to the control and 2522 to the intervention arm.

Interventions: An electronic system recorded attendance and triggered payments to the participant's mobile for the intervention arm (US$4.5), and phone credit for the control arm (US$0.5). Eligibility criteria were resident in the catchment area and access to a mobile phone.

Primary outcomes: Primary outcomes were any ANC, delivery, any PNC between 4 and 12 months after delivery, childhood immunisation and referral attendance to other facilities for ANC or PNC. Given problems with the electronic system, primary outcomes were obtained from maternal clinic books if participants brought them to data extraction meetings (1257 (50%) of intervention and 1053 (36%) control arm participants). Attendance at referrals to other facilities is not reported because of limited data.

Results: We found a significantly higher proportion of appointments attended for ANC (67% vs 60%, adjusted OR (aOR) 1.90; 95% CI 1.36 to 2.66) and child immunisation (88% vs 85%; aOR 1.74; 95% CI 1.10 to 2.77) in intervention than control arm. No intervention effect was seen considering delivery at the facility (90% vs 92%; aOR 0.58; 95% CI 0.25 to 1.33) and any PNC attendance (82% vs 81%; aOR 1.25; 95% CI 0.74 to 2.10) separately. The pooled OR across all attendance types was 1.64 (1.28 to 2.10).

Conclusions: Demand-side financing incentives, such as CCTs, can improve attendance for appointments. However, attention needs to be paid to the technology, the barriers that remain for delivery at facility and PNC visits and encouraging women to attend ANC visits within the recommended WHO timeframe.

Trial registration: NCT03021070.

Keywords: community child health; maternal medicine; public health.

Conflict of interest statement

Competing interests: AC who is associate editor of Sexually Transmitted Infections.

© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2022. Re-use permitted under CC BY. Published by BMJ.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Flow diagram of enrolment and inclusion in analyses by clinic randomisation status. n values refer to women and nc to clinics. ADD, actual date of delivery; EDD, expected date of delivery.

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