Analysis pipeline for correlating respiratory and LFP time series. (1) First, the respiratory data were synchronized with the LFP data, after being low-pass filtered at
Figure 4.
Respiration entrains higher-frequency oscillations in…
Figure 4.
Respiration entrains higher-frequency oscillations in PC, amygdala, and hippocampus. A–C , Time–frequency spectrograms…
Figure 4. Respiration entrains higher-frequency oscillations in PC, amygdala, and hippocampus. A–C, Time–frequency spectrograms for each patient were computed across trials and aligned to peak inspiratory flow at time = 2 s (vertical black lines). Each patient's averaged respiratory signal (black waveform) is overlaid on the corresponding spectrogram. The pseudocolor scale represents the mean spectral power (z-normalized) averaged over all breaths, on a patient-by-patient basis, relative to a preinhalation baseline period between 0.2 and 0.8 s (horizontal black bars). In PC (A) and amygdala (B), delta power significantly emerges during the inspiratory phase of breathing in each patient. Significant increases in delta power were also observed in hippocampus (C), although effects did not reach corrected significance in P3, P4, and P5. Time–frequency clusters, where spectral power survived statistical correction (FDR) for multiple comparisons (at z > 3.2), are outlined in black. Note, data from PC were not recorded in P5 and P6.
Figure 5.
Dependence of respiratory oscillations on…
Figure 5.
Dependence of respiratory oscillations on nasal airflow. A–C , Respiratory oscillations diminish when…
Figure 5. Dependence of respiratory oscillations on nasal airflow. A–C, Respiratory oscillations diminish when breathing is diverted from nose to mouth in PC (A), amygdala (B), and hippocampus (C). Time–frequency spectral plots are shown from one patient with PC coverage (P7), and three patients with amygdala and hippocampal coverage (P7, P5, and P6) who performed both nasal breathing (left panels) and oral breathing (middle panels) for 15 min each. (Spectrograms for the nasal breathing data are identical to those shown in Fig. 4.) The mean respiratory signals for nasal and oral respiration are plotted in black. The difference between nasal and oral spectrograms (nasal vs oral) is shown in the far right panels. Patients exhibited a consistent and significant decrement in respiratory oscillatory power from nasal to oral breathing for delta, theta, and beta frequency bands in PC, and for the delta frequency band in amygdala and hippocampus. Clusters outlined in black on the spectrograms survived FDR correction for statistical significance (z > 3.2).
Figure 6.
Comparison of slow respiratory oscillations…
Figure 6.
Comparison of slow respiratory oscillations in PC during nasal and oral breathing in…
Figure 6. Comparison of slow respiratory oscillations in PC during nasal and oral breathing in P7. Top row, The correlation between the respiratory waveform and the raw (unfiltered) LFP time series in PC (averaged across 6 s breathing trials, aligned to peak inspiratory flow at time = 2 s) was robust during nasal breathing, but not during oral breathing. Middle and bottom rows, By comparison, in this same patient in amygdala (middle row) and hippocampus (bottom row), respiratory entrainment was not significant during either nasal or oral breathing.
Figure 7.
Consistent modulation of beta amplitude…
Figure 7.
Consistent modulation of beta amplitude by theta phase in PC. A , Comodulograms…
Figure 7. Consistent modulation of beta amplitude by theta phase in PC. A, Comodulograms were computed individually in all five patients with piriform coverage, revealing cross-frequency coupling between theta phase and beta amplitude in each patient (white ovals). Each row represents one patient. Three of five patients also showed theta–gamma coupling (white arrows). Comodulograms were generated by computing the z-normalized MI for each phase-amplitude pair extending from 1 to 10 Hz in the phase dimension and from 13 to 200 Hz in the amplitude dimension. B, In patient P7, the magnitude of cross-frequency coupling in PC was significantly diminished when breathing was directed through the mouth, as shown in the difference map between nasal and oral comodulograms (right). Note, the nasal comodulogram for P7 in this panel is identical to that shown for P7 in A.
Figure 8.
Respiratory phase modulates fear-related response…
Figure 8.
Respiratory phase modulates fear-related response times. A , Emotion discrimination task. Subjects viewed…
Figure 8. Respiratory phase modulates fear-related response times. A, Emotion discrimination task. Subjects viewed faces expressing either fear or surprise, and indicated which emotion was perceived. Interstimulus interval, 2–5 s. Colored dots indicate where in the breathing cycle stimuli were encountered. B, Fearful faces were detected more quickly during nasal inspiration vs expiration, but not during oral breathing. C, Emotion RT data, binned across four phases of breathing, revealed a significant two-way interaction between breathing time bin (4 levels) and breathing route (nasal/oral) for fearful faces, with maximal RT differences during nasal fear trials occurring between the onset of inspiration and the onset of expiration. *p < 0.05 in all panels. Error bars represent the SEM.
Figure 9.
Respiratory phase modulates episodic memory…
Figure 9.
Respiratory phase modulates episodic memory performance. A , In a recognition memory task,…
Figure 9. Respiratory phase modulates episodic memory performance. A, In a recognition memory task, subjects viewed a series of different visual objects that occurred at different times within the breathing cycle. Interstimulus interval, 3–6 s. After a 20 min break, subjects were presented with the old pictures from the encoding session plus an equal number of new pictures. B, Memory performance was more accurate during inspiration than during expiration, with effects more pronounced for nasal than oral breathing, both for encoding and retrieval. C, An analysis of all “hit” trials revealed that recognition memory was significantly enhanced for pictures that had appeared during the inspiratory (vs expiratory) phase of retrieval, but it made no difference whether those same pictures had been encountered in the same phase during encoding. *p < 0.05 in all panels.
Figure 10.
Strength of respiratory modulation in…
Figure 10.
Strength of respiratory modulation in the amygdala predicts emotional response times. A ,…
Figure 10. Strength of respiratory modulation in the amygdala predicts emotional response times. A, One patient (P8) with intracranial coverage of the amygdala participated in the emotion discrimination task (as in Fig. 8). Analysis of RTs revealed a significant interaction between emotion (fear vs surprise) and respiratory phase (inhale vs exhale). B, A time–frequency spectrogram computed across all breaths highlights respiratory entrainment of oscillatory activity in the amygdala, as observed in the patients who took part in the passive breathing task. Significant spectral clusters (FDR-corrected) are outlined in black, and include delta-, theta-, and beta-frequency bands. Black line, Respiratory waveform; black horizontal bar, preinspiratory baseline period used for z-normalization. C, In a trial-by-trial analysis of inspiratory delta power, the 24 trials in which fearful faces appeared during the inspiratory phase of breathing were sorted by increasing RT, and suggest that fear–inhalation trials with higher oscillatory entrainment in amygdala (orange-to-red colors) were generally associated with faster behavioral responses, compared with trials associated with slower behavioral responses (green-to-blue colors). The respiratory signal for each trial is overlaid (vertically from top to bottom) in black. D, Trial-by-trial scatterplots of amygdala delta power vs emotion judgment RTs demonstrated a significant negative correlation for fear–inhalation trials only, whereby trials with greater inspiratory power were associated with lower (faster) RTs. Trialwise measures of amygdala delta power were averaged across the entire time-window of inhalation or exhalation separately for fear and surprise conditions.