Efficacy and safety of rapid tests to guide antibiotic prescriptions for sore throat
Jérémie F Cohen, Jean-Yves Pauchard, Nils Hjelm, Robert Cohen, Martin Chalumeau, Jérémie F Cohen, Jean-Yves Pauchard, Nils Hjelm, Robert Cohen, Martin Chalumeau
Abstract
Background: Sore throat is a common condition caused by viruses or bacteria, and is a leading cause of antibiotic prescription in primary care. The most common bacterial species is group A streptococcus ('strep throat'). Between 50% to 70% of pharyngitis cases are treated with antibiotics, despite the majority of cases being viral in origin. One strategy to reduce antibiotics is to use rapid tests for group A streptococcus to guide antibiotic prescriptions. Rapid tests can be used alone or in combination with a clinical scoring system.
Objectives: To assess the efficacy and safety of strategies based on rapid tests to guide antibiotic prescriptions for sore throat in primary care settings.
Search methods: We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, Web of Science, and LILACS, as well as the trial registries ClinicalTrials.gov and the WHO ICTRP on 5 June 2019.
Selection criteria: We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) comparing rapid tests with management based on clinical grounds to guide the prescription of antibiotics for people with a sore throat in ambulatory care settings. We included trials that randomised individuals, as well as cluster-RCTs in which individual practitioners (or practices) or emergency departments were randomised.
Data collection and analysis: Two review authors independently extracted data on the primary outcomes (number of participants provided with an antibiotic prescription; number of participants with an antibiotic dispensed) and secondary outcomes (duration of sore throat symptoms; duration of other symptoms; quality of life measures; number of participants with a complication attributed to the index infection; number of participants in need of re-consultation by the end of follow-up; number of participants in need of hospital admission by the end of follow-up; number of satisfied participants; number of participants with an adverse event attributed to the rapid test). We assessed the risk of bias of all included trials and used GRADE to assess the certainty of the evidence. We performed meta-analyses and sensitivity analyses when feasible.
Main results: We included five trials (2891 children and adult participants in total; 2545 participants after adjusting for clustering). Management in the intervention group was as follows: in three trials rapid tests were used in combination with a clinical scoring system; in one trial, some physicians were asked to use rapid tests alone, while others were asked to use rapid tests in combination with a clinical scoring system; in one trial, rapid tests were used alone. Based on data from five trials (2545 participants), a large reduction in prescribed antibiotics was found in the rapid test group (481/1197) versus management based on clinical grounds (865/1348), for a summary risk difference (RD) of -25%, 95% confidence interval (CI) -31% to -18%; I2 = 62%; moderate-certainty evidence. Estimates of effect on antibiotic prescription rates were stable in various sensitivity analyses. Based on data from two trials (900 people) originating from the same overarching study, the evidence suggests that rapid tests may not reduce dispensed antibiotic treatments: rapid test group (156/445) versus management based on clinical grounds (197/455); summary RD -7%, 95% CI -17% to 2%; I2 = 53%; low-certainty evidence. Four trials (2075 participants) reported data on the number of participants with a complication attributed to the index infection; the summary odds ratio (OR) was 0.85, 95% CI 0.03 to 26.65; P = 0.93; I2 = 62%; very low-certainty evidence, which means that people in the rapid testing group were less likely to develop complications of the index infection, but the evidence is very uncertain. Two trials (1161 participants) reported on the number of participants in need of re-consultation by the end of follow-up; the summary OR was 1.12, 95% CI 0.57 to 2.21; P = 0.74; I2 = 59%; low-certainty evidence, which means that participants in the rapid testing group were more likely to be in need of re-consultation by the end of the study follow-up, but the evidence is uncertain. Lack of data impeded assessment of other secondary outcomes (including safety outcomes) and of sources of heterogeneity. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Rapid testing to guide antibiotic treatment for sore throat in primary care probably reduces antibiotic prescription rates by 25% (absolute risk difference), but may have little or no impact on antibiotic dispensing. More studies are needed to assess the efficacy and safety of rapid test-guided antibiotic prescribing, notably to evaluate patient-centred outcomes and variability across subgroups (e.g. adults versus children).
Conflict of interest statement
Jérémie F Cohen: None known.
Jean‐Yves Pauchard: None known.
Nils Hjelm: I have received three scholarships (one scholarship for conducting research abroad as part of my medical studies at the Lund University; one scholarship for conducting research in France; and one scholarship from the Erasmus Funding Programme for conducting research in another European Union country). None of the received scholarships are regarded as potential conflicts of interest.
Robert Cohen: RC’s institution, ACTIV, has received research grant support from Pfizer, GlaxoSmithKline, Merck, and Sanofi Pasteur MSD. RC reports personal fees from Pfizer, GlaxoSmithKline, Merck, Sanofi, and AstraZeneca, outside the submitted work. These potential interests are only in the field of vaccines.
Martin Chalumeau: No financial competing interest in relation to the present systematic review.
JFC, RC, and MC have conducted diagnostic accuracy studies about rapid tests for strep throat in which rapid tests kits were provided by the manufacturer (Dectrapharm/Biosynex). These studies were not in the scope of the present review and thus were not included in the review.
Copyright © 2020 The Cochrane Collaboration. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Figures
References
References to studies included in this review Little 2013a {published data only}
- Little P, Hobbs FD, Moore M, Mant D, Williamson I, McNulty C, et al. Clinical score and rapid antigen detection test to guide antibiotic use for sore throats: randomised controlled trial of PRISM (primary care streptococcal management). BMJ 2013;347:f5806.
- Little P, Hobbs FD, Moore M, Mant D, Williamson I, McNulty C, et al. Clinical score and rapid antigen detection test to guide antibiotic use for sore throats: randomised controlled trial of PRISM (primary care streptococcal management). BMJ 2013;347:f5806.
- Llor C, Madurell J, Balagué-Corbella M, Gómez M, Cots JM. Impact on antibiotic prescription of rapid antigen detection testing in acute pharyngitis in adults: a randomised clinical trial. British Journal of General Practice 2011;61:e244-51.
- Maltezou HC, Tsagris V, Antoniadou A, Galani L, Douros C, Katsarolis I, et al. Evaluation of a rapid antigen detection test in the diagnosis of streptococcal pharyngitis in children and its impact on antibiotic prescription. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 2008;62:1407–12.
- Worrall G, Hutchinson J, Sherman G, Griffiths J. Diagnosing streptococcal sore throat in adults: randomized controlled trial of in-office aids. Canadian Family Physician 2007;53:666-71.
- Al-Najjar FY, Uduman SA. Clinical utility of a new rapid test for the detection of group A Streptococcus and discriminate use of antibiotics for bacterial pharyngitis in an outpatient setting. International Journal of Infectious Diseases 2008;12:308-11.
- Alper Z, Uncu Y, Akalin H, Ercan I, Sinirtas M, Bilgel NG. Diagnosis of acute tonsillopharyngitis in primary care: a new approach for low-resource settings. Journal of Chemotherapy 2013;25:148-55.
- Bird C, Winzor G, Lemon K, Moffat A, Newton T, Gray J. A pragmatic study to evaluate the use of a rapid diagnostic test to detect group A streptococcal pharyngitis in children with the aim of reducing antibiotic use in a UK emergency department. Pediatric Emergency Care 2018 Jul 24 [Epub ahead of print]. [DOI: 10.1097/PEC.0000000000001560]
- Bottaro G, Morselli I. Epidemiology and clinical pictures of pharyngitis: report on the activity of a family paediatrician. Pediatria Medica e Chirurgica 2007;29:326-30.
- Buchbinder N, Benzdira A, Belgaid A, Dufour D, Paon JC, Morel A, et al. Streptococcal pharyngitis in the pediatric emergency department: value and impact of rapid antigen detection test. Archives de Pédiatrie 2007;14:1057-61.
- Cardoso DM, Gilio AE, Hsin SH, Machado BM, Paulis M, Lotufo JP, et al. Impact of the rapid antigen detection test in diagnosis and treatment of acute pharyngotonsillitis in a pediatric emergency room. Revista Paulista de Pediatria 2013;31:4-9.
- Cohen R, Haas H, Lorrot M, Biscardi S, Romain O, Vie Le Sage F, et al. Antimicrobial treatment of ENT infections. Archives de Pédiatrie 2017;24:S9-16.
- Contessotto Spadetto C, Camara Simon M, Aviles Ingles MJ, Ojeda Escuriet JM, Cascales Barcelo I, Rodriguez Sanchez F. Rational use of antibiotics in pediatrics: impact of a rapid test for detection of beta-haemolytic group A streptococci in acute pharyngotonsillitis. Anales Espanoles de Pediatria 2000;52:212-9.
- Dodd M, Adolphe A, Parada A, Brett M, Culbreath K, Mercier RC. Clinical impact of a rapid streptococcal antigen test on antibiotic use in adult patients. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease 2018;91:339-44.
- Frost HM, Fritsche TR, Hall MC. Beta-hemolytic nongroup A streptococcal pharyngitis in children. Journal of Pediatrics 2019;206:268-73.e1.
- Harris R, Paine D, Wittler R, Bruhn F. Impact on empiric treatment of group A streptococcal pharyngitis using an optical immunoassay. Clinical Pediatrics 1995;34:122-7.
- Hedges JR, Singal BM, Estep JL. The impact of a rapid screen for streptococcal pharyngitis on clinical decision making in the emergency department. Medical Decision Making 1991;11:119-24.
- Humair JP, Revaz SA, Bovier P, Stalder H. Management of acute pharyngitis in adults: reliability of rapid streptococcal tests and clinical findings. Archives of Internal Medicine 2006;166:640-4.
- Lieu TA, Fleisher GR, Schwartz JS. Clinical performance and effect on treatment rates of latex agglutination testing for streptococcal pharyngitis in an emergency department. Pediatric Infectious Disease 1986;5:655-9.
- Little P, Moore M, Hobbs FD, Mant D, McNulty C, Williamson I, et al. Randomised controlled trial of a clinical score and rapid antigen detection test for sore throats. Health Technology Assessment 2014;18:29-39.
- Little P, Hobbs FD, Moore M, Mant D, Williamson I, McNulty C, et al. PRImary care Streptococcal Management (PRISM) study: in vitro study, diagnostic cohorts and a pragmatic adaptive randomised controlled trial with nested qualitative study and cost-effectiveness study. Health Technology Assessment 2014;18:vii-xxv, 1.
- Llor C, Cots JM, Gonzalez Lopez-Valcarcel B, Dios Alcantara J, Garcia G, Arranz J, et al. Effect of two interventions on reducing antibiotic prescription in pharyngitis in primary care. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 2011;66:210-5.
- Llor C, Cots JM, Hernández S, Ortega J, Arranz J, Monedero MJ, et al. Effectiveness of two types of intervention on antibiotic prescribing in respiratory tract infections in primary care in Spain: Happy Audit Study. Atencion Primaria 2014;46:492-500.
- Llor C, Bjerrum L, Munck A, Cots JM, Hernández S, Moragas A. Access to point-of-care tests reduces the prescription of antibiotics among antibiotic-requesting subjects with respiratory tract infections. Respiratory Care 2014;59:1918-23.
- Llor C, Bjerrum L, Molero JM, Moragas A, González López-Valcárcel B, Monedero MJ, et al. Long-term effect of a practice-based intervention (HAPPY AUDIT) aimed at reducing antibiotic prescribing in patients with respiratory tract infections. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 2018;73:2215-22.
- Llor C, Molero JM, Moragas A, Cordoba G, Bjerrum L. Use of point-of-care tests and antibiotic prescribing in sore throat and lower respiratory infections by general practitioners. Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica 2019;38:21-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eimc.2019.02.005]
- Luo R, Sickler J, Vahidnia F, Lee YC, Frogner B, Thompson M. Diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis in the United States, 2011-2015. BMC Infectious Diseases 2019;19:193.
- Madurell J, Balague M, Gomez M, Cots JM, Llor C. Impact of rapid antigen detection testing on antibiotic prescription in acute pharyngitis in adults. FARINGOCAT STUDY: a multicentric randomized controlled trial. BMC Family Practice 2010;11:25.
- Maizia A, Letrilliart L, Colin C. Diagnostic strategies for acute tonsillitis in France: a cost-effectiveness study. Presse Medicale 2012;41:e195-203.
- Majeed HA, al-Doussary L, Moussa MM, Yusuf AR, Suliman AH. Office diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis employing the rapid antigen detecting test. A 1-year prospective study of reliability and cost in primary care centres. Annals of Tropical Paediatrics 1993;13:65-72.
- Makela M. Effect of latex agglutination test on prescribing for group A streptococcal throat disease in primary care. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases 1989;21:161-7.
- McGinn TG, McCullagh L, Kannry J, Knaus M, Sofianou A, Wisnivesky JP, et al. Efficacy of an evidence-based clinical decision support in primary care practices: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Internal Medicine 2013;173:1584-91.
- McIsaac WJ, Kellner JD, Aufricht P, Vanjaka A, Low DE. Empirical validation of guidelines for the management of pharyngitis in children and adults. JAMA 2004;291:1587-95.
- NCT03744832. Point of care streptococcal pharyngitis testing. (first posted 16 November 16 2018).
- Orda U, Mitra B, Orda S, Fitzgerald M, Gunnarsson R, Rofe G, et al. Point of care testing for group A streptococci in patients presenting with pharyngitis will improve appropriate antibiotic prescription. Emergency Medicine Australasia 2016;28:199-204.
- Papastergiou J, Trieu CR, Saltmarche D, Diamantouros A. Community pharmacist-directed point-of-care group A Streptococcus testing: evaluation of a Canadian program. Journal of the American Pharmacists Association 2018;58:450-6.
- Ralph AP, Holt DC, Islam S, Osowicki J, Carroll DE, Tong SYC, et al. Potential for molecular testing for group A Streptococcus to improve diagnosis and management in a high-risk population: a prospective study. Open Forum Infectious Diseases 2019;6:ofz097.
- Rao A, Berg B, Quezada T, Fader R, Walker K, Tang S, et al. Diagnosis and antibiotic treatment of group A streptococcal pharyngitis in children in a primary care setting: impact of point-of-care polymerase chain reaction. BMC Pediatrics 2019;19:24.
- Regueras De Lorenzo G, Santos Rodríguez PM, Villa Bajo L, Pérez Guirado A, Arbesú Fernández E, Barreiro Hurlé L, et al. Use of the rapid antigen technique in the diagnosis of Streptococcus pyogenes pharyngotonsillitis. Anales de Pediatria 2012;77:193-9.
- Reichardt B, Pichlhofer O, Zehetmayer S, Maier M. Current diagnosis of acute pharyngitis. Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift 2009;159:202-6.
- Tanz RR, Zheng XT, Carter DM, Steele MC, Shulman ST. Caution needed: molecular diagnosis of pediatric group A streptococcal pharyngitis. Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Disease Society 2018;7:e145-7.
- Thornton HV, Hay AD, Redmond NM, Turnbull SL, Christensen H, Peters TJ, et al. Throat swabs in children with respiratory tract infection: associations with clinical presentation and potential targets for point-of-care testing. Family Practice 2017;34:407-15.
- True BL, Carter BL, Driscoll CE, House JD. Effect of a rapid diagnostic method on prescribing patterns and ordering of throat cultures for streptococcal pharyngitis. Journal of Family Practice 1986;23:215-9.
- Worrall G, Hutchinson J, Sherman G, Griffiths J. Diagnosing streptococcal sore throat in adults - randomized controlled trial of in-office aids. Canadian Family Physician 2007;53:667-71.
- Worrall G, Hutchinson J, Sherman G, Griffiths J. Diagnosing streptococcal sore throat in adults: randomized controlled trial of in-office aids. [Erratum appears in Can Fam Physician. 2007 Jun;53(6):1006]. Canadian Family Physician 2007;53:666-71.
- Wächtler H, Kaduszkiewicz H, Hansmann-Wiest J, Hedderich J, Wiese B, Maas S, et al. Antibiotics for sore throat in Germany: influence of a guideline or an additional Strep-test on antibiotic prescriptions. In: General Practice Research on Infections Network. 2018. [TRIAL IDENTIFIER: DRKS00013018]
- Aabenhus R, Jensen JU, Jørgensen KJ, Hróbjartsson A, Bjerrum L. Biomarkers as point-of-care tests to guide prescription of antibiotics in patients with acute respiratory infections in primary care. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014, Issue 11. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD010130.pub2]
- Kimberlin DW (editor). Red Book: 2015 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 30th edition. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics, 2015.
- Adams G, Gulliford MC, Ukoumunne OC, Eldridge S, Chinn S, Campbell MJ. Patterns of intra-cluster correlation from primary care research to inform study design and analysis. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 2004;57(8):785-94.
- Atkins D, Best D, Briss PA, Eccles M, Falck-Ytter Y, Flottorp S, et al. Grading quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. BMJ 2004;328(7454):1490. [PMID: ]
- Ayanruoh S, Waseem M, Quee F, Humphrey A, Reynolds T. Impact of rapid streptococcal test on antibiotic use in a pediatric emergency department. Pediatric Emergency Care 2009;25(11):748-50.
- Carlet J. World Alliance Against Antibiotic Resistance (WAAR): safeguarding antibiotics. Intensive Care Medicine 2012;38(10):1723-4. [PMID: ]
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey: 2012 state and national summary tables. .
- Chahwakilian P, Huttner B, Schlemmer B, Harbarth S. Impact of the French campaign to reduce inappropriate ambulatory antibiotic use on the prescription and consultation rates for respiratory tract infections. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 2011;66(12):2872-9.
- Cohen JF, Cohen R, Levy C, Thollot F, Benani M, Bidet P, et al. Selective testing strategies for diagnosing group A streptococcal infection in children with pharyngitis: a systematic review and prospective multicentre external validation study. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2015;187(1):23-32. [PMID: ]
- Cohen JF, Bertille N, Cohen R, Chalumeau M. Rapid antigen detection test for group A streptococcus in children with pharyngitis. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2016, Issue 7. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD010502.pub2]
- Ebell MH, Smith MA, Barry HC, Ives K, Carey M. The rational clinical examination. Does this patient have strep throat? JAMA 2000;284(22):2912-8. [PMID: ]
- Fine AM, Nizet V, Mandl KD. Large-scale validation of the Centor and McIsaac scores to predict group A streptococcal pharyngitis. Archives of Internal Medicine 2012;172(11):847-52.
- Fleming-Dutra KE, Hersh AL, Shapiro DJ, Bartoces M, Enns EA, File TM Jr, et al. Prevalence of inappropriate antibiotic prescriptions among US ambulatory care visits, 2010-2011. JAMA 2016;315(17):1864-73.
- Gerber MA, Shulman ST. Rapid diagnosis of pharyngitis caused by group A streptococci. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 2004;17(3):571-80. [PMID: ]
- Goossens H, Ferech M, Vander Stichele R, Elseviers M. Outpatient antibiotic use in Europe and association with resistance: a cross-national database study. Lancet 2005;365(9459):579-87. [PMID: ]
- Higgins JP, Green S, editor(s). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 (updated March 2011). The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from .
- Hong SY, Taur Y, Jordan MR, Wanke C. Antimicrobial prescribing in the USA for adult acute pharyngitis in relation to treatment guidelines. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 2011;17(6):1176-83. [PMID: ]
- Joachim L, Campos D Jr, Smeesters PR. Pragmatic scoring system for pharyngitis in low-resource settings. Pediatrics 2010;126(3):e608-14.
- Laxminarayan R, Duse A, Wattal C, Zaidi AK, Wertheim HF, Sumpradit N, et al. Antibiotic resistance - the need for global solutions. Lancet Infectious Diseases 2013;13(12):1057-98. [PMID: ]
- Lean WL, Arnup S, Danchin M, Steer AC. Rapid diagnostic tests for group A streptococcal pharyngitis: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2014;134(4):771-81. [PMID: ]
- Linder JA, Bates DW, Lee GM, Finkelstein JA. Antibiotic treatment of children with sore throat. JAMA 2005;294(18):2315-22. [PMID: ]
- Little P, Hobbs FR, Moore M, Mant D, Williamson I, McNulty C, et al. PrImary care Streptococcal Management (PRISM) study: in vitro study, diagnostic cohorts and a pragmatic adaptive randomised controlled trial with nested qualitative study and cost-effectiveness study. Health Technology Assessment 2014;18(6):vii-xxv. [PMID: ]
- Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, The PRISMA Group. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA Statement. BMJ 2009;339:2535.
- Pouwels KB, Dolk FCK, Smith DRM, Robotham JV, Smieszek T. Actual versus 'ideal' antibiotic prescribing for common conditions in English primary care. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 2018;73(Suppl 2):19-26.
- Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration Review Manager 5 (RevMan 5). Version 5.3. Copenhagen: Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2014.
- Shaikh N, Leonard E, Martin JM. Prevalence of streptococcal pharyngitis and streptococcal carriage in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2010;126(3):e557-64. [PMID: ]
- Shaikh N, Swaminathan N, Hooper EG. Accuracy and precision of the signs and symptoms of streptococcal pharyngitis in children: a systematic review. Journal of Pediatrics 2012;160(3):487-93.e3. [PMID: ]
- Shulman ST, Bisno AL, Clegg HW, Gerber MA, Kaplan EL, Lee G, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis: 2012 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2012;55(10):e86-102. [PMID: ]
- Spinks A, Glasziou PP, Del Mar CB. Antibiotics for sore throat. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, Issue 11. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD000023.pub4]
- Tanz RR, Gerber MA, Kabat W, Rippe J, Seshadri R, Shulman ST. Performance of a rapid antigen-detection test and throat culture in community pediatric offices: implications for management of pharyngitis. Pediatrics 2009;123(2):437-44.
- Vandenbroucke JP. Benefits and harms of drug treatments. BMJ 2004;329(7456):2-3.
- Wessels MR. Clinical practice. Streptococcal pharyngitis. New England Journal of Medicine 2011;364(7):648-55.
- Cohen JF, Pauchard JY, Hjelm N, Cohen R, Chalumeau M. Efficacy and safety of rapid tests to guide antibiotic prescriptions for sore throat. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2016, Issue 11. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD012431]
Source: PubMed