AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF CLINICAL ENDOCRINOLOGISTS AND AMERICAN COLLEGE OF ENDOCRINOLOGY DISEASE STATE CLINICAL REVIEW: THE INCREASING INCIDENCE OF THYROID CANCER

Louise Davies, Luc G T Morris, Megan Haymart, Amy Y Chen, David Goldenberg, John Morris, Jennifer B Ogilvie, David J Terris, James Netterville, Richard J Wong, Gregory Randolph, AACE Endocrine Surgery Scientific Committee, Louise Davies, Luc G T Morris, Megan Haymart, Amy Y Chen, David Goldenberg, John Morris, Jennifer B Ogilvie, David J Terris, James Netterville, Richard J Wong, Gregory Randolph, AACE Endocrine Surgery Scientific Committee

Abstract

Objective: (1) Describe current epidemiology of thyroid cancer in the United States; (2) evaluate hypothesized causes of the increased incidence of thyroid cancer; and (3) suggest next steps in research and clinical action.

Methods: Analysis of data from Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results System and the National Center for Vital Statistics. Literature review of published English-language articles through December 31, 2013.

Results: The incidence of thyroid cancer has tripled over the past 30 years, whereas mortality is stable. The increase is mainly comprised of smaller tumors. These facts together suggest the major reason for the increased incidence is detection of subclinical, nonlethal disease. This has likely occurred through: health care system access, incidental detection on imaging, more frequent biopsy, greater volumes of and extent of surgery, and changes in pathology practices. Because larger-size tumors have increased in incidence also, it is possible that there is a concomitant true rise in thyroid cancer incidence. The only clearly identifiable contributor is radiation exposure, which has likely resulted in a few additional cases annually. The contribution of the following causes to the increasing incidence is unclear: iodine excess or insufficiency, diabetes and obesity, and molecular disruptions. The following mechanisms do not currently have strong evidence to support a link with the development of thyroid cancer: estrogen, dietary nitrate, and autoimmune thyroid disease.

Conclusion: Research should focus on illuminating which thyroid cancers need treatment. Patients should be advised of the benefits as well as harms that can occur with treatment of incidentally identified, small, asymptomatic thyroid cancers.

Conflict of interest statement

DISCLOSURE

The authors have no multiplicity of interest to disclose.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Incidence by histology of thyroid cancer and mortality of thyroid cancer, 1975–2011. Data are from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program (www.seer.cancer.gov) SEER*Stat Database: Incidence - SEER 9 Regs Research Data, Nov 2012 Sub (1973–2011) <Katrina/Rita Population Adjustment> - Linked To County Attributes - Total U.S., 1969–2011 Counties, National Cancer Institute, DCCPS, Surveillance Research Program, Surveillance Systems Branch, released April 2014, based on the November 2013 submission. Underlying mortality data for 1975–2010 are provided by NCHS (www.cdc.gov/nchs).
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Differentiated thyroid cancer incidence trends by size, 1983–2011. Data are from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program (www.seer.cancer.gov) SEER*Stat Database: Incidence - SEER 9 Regs Research Data, Nov 2012 Sub (1973–2011) <Katrina/Rita Population Adjustment> - Linked To County Attributes - Total U.S., 1969–2011 Counties, National Cancer Institute, DCCPS, Surveillance Research Program, Surveillance Systems Branch, released April 2014, based on the November 2013 submission.
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Thyroid cancer incidence trends by age group, 1975–2011. Data are from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program (www.seer.cancer.gov) SEER*Stat Database: Incidence - SEER 9 Regs Research Data, Nov 2012 Sub (1973–2011) <Katrina/Rita Population Adjustment> - Linked To County Attributes - Total U.S., 1969–2011 Counties, National Cancer Institute, DCCPS, Surveillance Research Program, Surveillance Systems Branch, released April 2014, based on the November 2013 submission.

References

    1. Welch HG, Black WC. Overdiagnosis in cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2010;102:605–613.
    1. International Classification of Diseases for Oncology. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2000.
    1. Cancer Fast Stats, National Cancer Institute. [Accessed April 9, 2014]; Available at: .
    1. Davies L, Welch HG. Increasing incidence of thyroid cancer in the United States, 1973–2002. JAMA. 2006;295:2164–2167.
    1. Chen AY, Jemal A, Ward EM. Increasing incidence of differentiated thyroid cancer in the United States, 1988–2005. Cancer. 2009;115:3801–3807.
    1. Davies L, Welch HG. Current thyroid cancer trends in the United States. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2014;140:317–322.
    1. Jung CK, Little MP, Lubin JH, et al. The increase in thyroid cancer incidence during the last four decades is accompanied by a high frequency of BRAF mutations and a sharp increase in RAS mutations. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014;99:E276–E285.
    1. Mathur A, Moses W, Rahbari R, et al. Higher rate of BRAF mutation in papillary thyroid cancer over time: a single-institution study. Cancer. 2011;117:4390–4395.
    1. Harach HR, Franssila KO, Wasenius VM. Occult papillary carcinoma of the thyroid. A “normal” finding in Finland. A systematic autopsy study. Cancer. 1985;56:531–538.
    1. Martinez-Tello FJ, Martinez-Cabruja R, Fernandez-Martin J, Lasso-Oria C, Ballestin-Carcavilla C. Occult carcinoma of the thyroid. A systematic autopsy study from Spain of two series performed with two different methods. Cancer. 1993;71:4022–4029.
    1. Mortensen JD, Woolner LB, Bennett WA. Gross and microscopic findings in clinically normal thyroid glands. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1955;15:1270–1280.
    1. Pakdaman MN, Rochon L, Gologan O, et al. Incidence and histopathological behavior of papillary microcarcinomas: study of 429 cases. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2008;139:718–722.
    1. Wiest PW, Hartshorne MF, Inskip PD, et al. Thyroid palpation versus high-resolution thyroid ultrasonography in the detection of nodules. J Ultrasound Med. 1998;17:487–496.
    1. Morris LG, Sikora AG, Tosteson TD, Davies L. The increasing incidence of thyroid cancer: the influence of access to care. Thyroid. 2013;23:885–891.
    1. Kweon SS, Shin MH, Chung IJ, Kim YJ, Choi JS. Thyroid cancer is the most common cancer in women, based on the data from population-based cancer registries, South Korea. Jpn J Clin Oncol. 2013;43:1039–1046.
    1. Han MA, Choi KS, Lee HY, Kim Y, Jun JK, Park EC. Current status of thyroid cancer screening in Korea: results from a nationwide interview survey. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2011;12:1657–1663.
    1. Lee TJ, Kim S, Cho HJ, Lee JH. The incidence of thyroid cancer is affected by the characteristics of a healthcare system. J Korean Med Sci. 2012;27:1491–1498.
    1. Smith-Bindman R, Miglioretti DL, Johnson E, et al. Use of diagnostic imaging studies and associated radiation exposure for patients enrolled in large integrated health care systems, 1996–2010. JAMA. 2012;307:2400–2409.
    1. Greenspan FS. Thyroid nodules and thyroid cancer. West J Med. 1974;121:359–365.
    1. Cooper DS, Doherty GM, Haugen BR, et al. Revised American Thyroid Association management guidelines for patients with thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid. 2009;19:1167–1214.
    1. Gharib H, Papini E, Paschke R, et al. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, Associazione Medici Endocrinologi, and European Thyroid Association Medical guidelines for clinical practice for the diagnosis and management of thyroid nodules: executive summary of recommendations. Endocr Pract. 2010;16:468–475.
    1. National Comprehensive Care Network, Guidelines for Thyroid Carcinoma. [Accessed April 22, 2015]; Available at: .
    1. Sun GH, DeMonner S, Davis MM. Epidemiological and economic trends in inpatient and outpatient thyroidectomy in the United States, 1996–2006. Thyroid. 2013;23:727–733.
    1. Schmidt WA. Principles and Techniques of Surgical Pathology. Menlo Park, CA: Addison Wesley Publishing Company; 1983.
    1. Ghossein R, Asa SL, Barnes L, et al. Protocol for the examination of specimens from patients with carcinomas of the thyroid gland. In: Edition #: Thyroid 3.0.0.2, editor. College of American Pathologists Protocols. College of American Pathologists; 2012.
    1. Verkooijen HM, Fioretta G, Pache JC, et al. Diagnostic changes as a reason for the increase in papillary thyroid cancer incidence in Geneva, Switzerland. Cancer Causes Control. 2003;14:13–17.
    1. Lloyd RV, Erickson LA, Casey MB, et al. Observer variation in the diagnosis of follicular variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma. Am J Surg Pathol. 2004;28:1336–1340.
    1. Enewold L, Zhu K, Ron E, et al. Rising thyroid cancer incidence in the United States by demographic and tumor characteristics, 1980–2005. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2009;18:784–791.
    1. Malone MK, Zagzag J, Ogilvie JB, Patel KN, Heller KS. Thyroid cancers detected by imaging are not necessarily small or early stage. Thyroid. 2014;24:314–318.
    1. Yoo F, Chaikhoutdinov I, Mitzner R, Liao J, Goldenberg D. Characteristics of incidentally discovered thyroid cancer. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2013;139:1181–1186.
    1. Aschebrook-Kilfoy B, Grogan RH, Ward MH, Kaplan E, Devesa SS. Follicular thyroid cancer incidence patterns in the United States, 1980–2009. Thyroid. 2013;23:1015–1021.
    1. Zhu C, Zheng T, Kilfoy BA, et al. A birth cohort analysis of the incidence of papillary thyroid cancer in the United States, 1973–2004. Thyroid. 2009;19:1061–1066.
    1. Nikiforova MN, Stringer JR, Blough R, Medvedovic M, Fagin JA, Nikiforov YE. Proximity of chromosomal loci that participate in radiation-induced rearrangements in human cells. Science. 2000;290:138–141.
    1. Schonfeld SJ, Lee C, Berrington de González A. Medical exposure to radiation and thyroid cancer. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol) 2011;23:244–250.
    1. Furukawa K, Preston D, Funamoto S, et al. Long-term trend of thyroid cancer risk among Japanese atomicbomb survivors: 60 years after exposure. Int J Cancer. 2013;132:1222–1226.
    1. Management NCRPa. NRCP Report No. 160, Ionizing Radiation Exposure of the Population of the United States. Bethesda, MD: NRCP; 2009. 2009.
    1. Brenner DJ, Hall EJ. Computed tomography--an increasing source of radiation exposure. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:2277–2284.
    1. Berrington de González A, Mahesh M, Kim KP, et al. Projected cancer risks from computed tomographic scans performed in the United States in 2007. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169:2071–2077.
    1. Ludlow JB, Davies-Ludlow LE, White SC. Patient risk related to common dental radiographic examinations: the impact of 2007 International Commission on Radiological Protection recommendations regarding dose calculation. J Am Dent Assoc. 2008;139:1237–1243.
    1. Bottollier-Depois JF, Chau Q, Bouisset P, Kerlau G, Plawinski L, Lebaron-Jacobs L. Assessing exposure to cosmic radiation during long-haul flights. Radiat Res. 2000;153(5 Pt 1):526–532.
    1. Schmid D, Behrens G, Jochem C, Keimling M, Leitzmann M. Physical activity, diabetes, and risk of thyroid cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Epidemiol. 2013;28:945–958.
    1. Aschebrook-Kilfoy B, Sabra MM, Brenner A, et al. Diabetes and thyroid cancer risk in the National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study. Thyroid. 2011;21:957–963.
    1. Shih SR, Chiu WY, Chang TC, Tseng CH. Diabetes and thyroid cancer risk: literature review. Exp Diabetes Res. 2012;2012:578285.
    1. Tseng CH. Thyroid cancer risk is not increased in diabetic patients. PloS One. 2012;7:e53096.
    1. Kitahara CM, Platz EA, Freeman LE, et al. Obesity and thyroid cancer risk among U.S. men and women: a pooled analysis of five prospective studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2011;20:464–472.
    1. Zhao ZG, Guo XG, Ba CX, et al. Overweight, obesity and thyroid cancer risk: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. J Int Med Res. 2012;40:2041–2050.
    1. Bertakis KD, Azari R. Obesity and the use of health care services. Obesity Res. 2005;13:372–379.
    1. Kitahara CM, Neta G, Pfeiffer RM, et al. Common obesity-related genetic variants and papillary thyroid cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2012;21:2268–2271.
    1. Cléro É, Doyon F, Chungue V, et al. Dietary iodine and thyroid cancer risk in French Polynesia: a case-control study. Thyroid. 2012;22:422–429.
    1. Lawal O, Agbakwuru A, Olayinka OS, Adelusola K. Thyroid malignancy in endemic nodular goitres: prevalence, pattern and treatment. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2001;27:157–161.
    1. Feldt-Rasmussen U. Iodine and cancer. Thyroid. 2001;11:483–486.
    1. Knobel M, Medeiros-Neto G. Relevance of iodine intake as a reputed predisposing factor for thyroid cancer. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol. 2007;51:701–712.
    1. Sehestedt T, Knudsen N, Perrild H, Johansen C. Iodine intake and incidence of thyroid cancer in Denmark. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2006;65:229–233.
    1. Burgess JR, Dwyer T, McArdle K, Tucker P, Shugg D. The changing incidence and spectrum of thyroid carcinoma in Tasmania (1978–1998) during a transition from iodine sufficiency to iodine deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000;85:1513–1517.
    1. Rajoria S, Suriano R, Shanmugam A, et al. Metastatic phenotype is regulated by estrogen in thyroid cells. Thyroid. 2010;20:33–41.
    1. Rajoria S, Suriano R, George A, et al. Estrogen induced metastatic modulators MMP-2 and MMP-9 are targets of 3,3’-diindolylmethane in thyroid cancer. PloS One. 2011;6:e15879.
    1. Kamat A, Rajoria S, George A, et al. Estrogen-mediated angiogenesis in thyroid tumor microenvironment is mediated through VEGF signaling pathways. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2011;137:1146–1153.
    1. Zahid M, Goldner W, Beseler CL, Rogan EG, Cavalieri EL. Unbalanced estrogen metabolism in thyroid cancer. Int J Cancer. 2013;133:2642–2649.
    1. Magri F, Capelli V, Rotondi M, et al. Expression of estrogen and androgen receptors in differentiated thyroid cancer: an additional criterion to assess the patient’s risk. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2012;19:463–471.
    1. Ward MH, Kilfoy BA, Weyer PJ, Anderson KE, Folsom AR, Cerhan JR. Nitrate intake and the risk of thyroid cancer and thyroid disease. Epidemiology. 2010;21:389–395.
    1. Kilfoy BA, Zhang Y, Park Y, et al. Dietary nitrate and nitrite and the risk of thyroid cancer in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. Int J Cancer. 2011;129:160–172.
    1. Aschebrook-Kilfoy B, Shu XO, Gao YT, et al. Thyroid cancer risk and dietary nitrate and nitrite intake in the Shanghai women’s health study. Int J Cancer. 2013;132:897–904.
    1. Tamimi DM. The association between chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis and thyroid tumors. Int J Surg Pathol. 2002;10:141–146.
    1. Jankovic B, Le KT, Hershman JM. Clinical review: Hashimoto’s thyroiditis and papillary thyroid carcinoma: is there a correlation? J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98:474–482.

Source: PubMed

Sponsorzy i współpracownicy

Warunki medyczne

Interwencje lekowe

3
Subskrybuj