Epidemiology of Traumatic Brain Injury in Europe: A Living Systematic Review

Alexandra Brazinova, Veronika Rehorcikova, Mark S Taylor, Veronika Buckova, Marek Majdan, Marek Psota, Wouter Peeters, Valery Feigin, Alice Theadom, Lubomir Holkovic, Anneliese Synnot, Alexandra Brazinova, Veronika Rehorcikova, Mark S Taylor, Veronika Buckova, Marek Majdan, Marek Psota, Wouter Peeters, Valery Feigin, Alice Theadom, Lubomir Holkovic, Anneliese Synnot

Abstract

This systematic review provides a comprehensive, up-to-date summary of traumatic brain injury (TBI) epidemiology in Europe, describing incidence, mortality, age, and sex distribution, plus severity, mechanism of injury, and time trends. PubMed, CINAHL, EMBASE, and Web of Science were searched in January 2015 for observational, descriptive, English language studies reporting incidence, mortality, or case fatality of TBI in Europe. There were no limitations according to date, age, or TBI severity. Methodological quality was assessed using the Methodological Evaluation of Observational Research checklist. Data were presented narratively. Sixty-six studies were included in the review. Country-level data were provided in 22 studies, regional population or treatment center catchment area data were reported by 44 studies. Crude incidence rates varied widely. For all ages and TBI severities, crude incidence rates ranged from 47.3 per 100,000, to 694 per 100,000 population per year (country-level studies) and 83.3 per 100,000, to 849 per 100,000 population per year (regional-level studies). Crude mortality rates ranged from 9 to 28.10 per 100,000 population per year (country-level studies), and 3.3 to 24.4 per 100,000 population per year (regional-level studies.) The most common mechanisms of injury were traffic accidents and falls. Over time, the contribution of traffic accidents to total TBI events may be reducing. Case ascertainment and definitions of TBI are variable. Improved standardization would enable more accurate comparisons.

Keywords: epidemiology; living systematic review; traumatic brain injury.

Conflict of interest statement

No competing financial interests exist.

Figures

FIG. 1.
FIG. 1.
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) flowchart of the study selection process.
FIG. 2.
FIG. 2.
Traumatic brain injury incidence and mortality rates (crude) per 100,000 population per year in country-level studies.
FIG. 3.
FIG. 3.
Traumatic brain injury incidence and mortality (crude) rates per 100,000 population per year in regional-level studies.
FIG. 4.
FIG. 4.
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) incidence rates (crude) per 100,000 population per year in country-level studies. Studies reporting on all ages and all TBI severity were used. The size of the boxes depicts the weight (relative to other studies in the analysis) that the study has in relation to the summary measure of the meta-analysis; larger boxes depict higher weight. (a), 1998 data; (b), average for 5-year period (1991–1995); (c), 2001–2005 data; (d), 2009 data; (e), average for 2009–2011; (f), average for 2010–2012.
FIG. 5.
FIG. 5.
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) incidence rates (crude) per 100,000 population per year in regional-level studies. Studies reporting on all ages and all TBI severity were used. The size of the boxes depicts the weight (relative to other studies in the analysis) that the study has in relation to the summary measure of the meta-analysis; larger boxes depict higher weight. *ref. no. 80; (g), 1996 data.
FIG. 6.
FIG. 6.
Funnel plot of traumatic brain injury incidence in regional-level studies.
FIG. 7.
FIG. 7.
The most common mechanisms of injury in country-level studies.
FIG. 8.
FIG. 8.
The most common mechanisms of injury in regional-level studies.

References

    1. Rodriguez, S.R., Mallonee, S., Archer, P., and Gofton, J. (2006). Evaluation of death certificate-based surveillance for traumatic brain injury: Oklahoma 2002. Public Health Rep. 121, 282.
    1. Faul, M.D., Wald, M.M., Xu, L., and Coronado, V.G. (2010). Traumatic brain injury in the United States; Emergency Department Visits, Hospitalizations, and Deaths, 2002–2006. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Atlanta, GA
    1. Tagliaferri, F., Compagnone, C., Korsic, M., Servadei, F., and Kraus, J. (2006). A systematic review of brain injury epidemiology in Europe. Acta Neurochir. (Wien) 148, 255–268
    1. Hellawell, D.J., Taylor, R.T., and Pentland, B. (1999). Cognitive and psychosocial outcome following moderate or severe traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj. 13, 489–504
    1. Teasdale, G. and Jennett, B. (1976). Assessment and prognosis of coma after head injury. Acta Neurochir. 34, 45–55
    1. Ono, J.I., Yamaura, A., Kubota, M., Okimura, Y., and Isobe, K. (2001). Outcome prediction in severe head injury: analyses of clinical prognostic factors. J. Clin. Neurosci. 8, 120–123
    1. Dikmen, S.S., Machamer, J.E., Powell, J.M., and Temkin, N.R. (2003). Outcome 3 to 5 years after moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 84, 1449–1457
    1. Maas, A.I., Lingsma, H.F., and Roozenbeek, B. (2015). Predicting outcome after traumatic brain injury. Handb. Clin. Neurol. 128, 455–474
    1. European Parliament. Available at: . Accessed January15, 2015
    1. Maas, A.I., Harrison-Felix, C.L., Menon, D., Adelson, P.D., Balkin, T., Bullock, R., Engel, D.C., Gordon, W., Langlois-Orman, J., Lew, H.L., Robertson, C., Temkin, N., Valadka, A., Verfaellie, M., Wainwright, M., Wright, D.W., and Schwab, K. (2011). Standardizing data collection in traumatic brain injury. J. Neurotrauma 28, 177–187
    1. Menon, D.K., Schwab, K., Wright, D.W., and Maas, A.I. (2010). Position statement: definition of traumatic brain injury. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 91, 1637–1640
    1. Menon, D.K. and Maas, A.I. (2015). Traumatic brain injury in 2014. Progress, failures and new approaches for TBI research. Nat. Rev. Neurol. 11, 71–72
    1. Peeters, W., van den Brande, R., Polinder, S., Brazinova, A., Steyerberg, E.W., Lingsma, H.F., and Maas, A.I. (2015). Epidemiology of traumatic brain injury in Europe. Acta Neurochir. 157, 1683–1696
    1. Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., and Altman, D.G. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 62, 1006–1012
    1. Maas, A.I., Menon, D.K., Steyerberg, E.W., Citerio, G., Lecky, F., Manley, G.T., Hill, S., Legrand, V., and Sorgner, A. (2015). Collaborative European NeuroTrauma Effectiveness Research in Traumatic Brain Injury (CENTER-TBI): a prospective longitudinal observational study. Neurosurgery 76, 67–80
    1. Elliott, J.H., Turner, T., Clavisi, O., Thomas, J., Higgins, J.P., Mavergames, C., and Gruen, R.L. (2014). Living systematic reviews: an emerging opportunity to narrow the evidence-practice gap. PLoS Med. 11, e1001603.
    1. Synnot, A., Gruen, R.L., Menon, D., Steyerberg, E.W., Buki, A., Peul, W., Elliott, J.H., and Maas, A. (2015). A new approach to evidence synthesis in traumatic brain injury: living systematic reviews. J. Neurotrauma 2015 Sep 28; Epub ahead of print
    1. Covidence. Available at: . Accessed December20, 2015
    1. Shamliyan, T.A., Kane, R.L., Ansari, M.T., Raman, G., Berkman, N.D., Grant, M., Janes, G., Maglione, M., Moher, D., Nasser, M., Robinson, K.A., Segal, J.B., and Tsouros, S. (2011). Development quality criteria to evaluate nontherapeutic studies of incidence, prevalence, or risk factors of chronic diseases: pilot study of new checklists. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 64, 637–657
    1. Stolwijk, C., van Tubergen, A., Castillo-Ortiz, J.D., and Boonen, A. (2015). Prevalence of extra-articular manifestations in patients with ankylosing spondylitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 74, 65–73
    1. von Elm, E., Osterwalder, J.J., Graber, C., Schoettker, P., Stocker, R., Zangger, P., Vuadens, P., Egger, M., and Walder, B. (2008). Severe traumatic brain injury in Switzerland - feasibility and first results of a cohort study. Swiss Med. Wkly. 138, 327–334
    1. Shivaji, T., Lee, A., Dougall, N., McMillan, T., and Stark, C. (2014). The epidemiology of hospital treated traumatic brain injury in Scotland. BMC Neurol. 14, 2.
    1. Engberg, A. and Teasdale, T.W. (1998). Traumatic brain injury in children in Denmark: a national 15-year study. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 14, 165–173
    1. Walder, B., Haller, G., Rebetez, M.M., Delhumeau, C., Bottequin, E., Schoettker, P., Ravussin, P., Brodmann Maeder, M., Stover, J.F., Zurcher, M., Haller, A., Wackelin, A., Haberthur, C., Fandino, J., Haller, C.S., and Osterwalder, J. (2013). Severe traumatic brain injury in a high-income country: an epidemiological study. J. Neurotrauma 30, 1934–1942
    1. Boto, G.R., Gomez, P.A., De la Cruz, J., and Lobato, R.D. (2009). A historical analysis of severe head injury. Neurosurg. Rev. 32, 343–353
    1. Vazquez-Barquero, A., Vazquez-Barquero, J.L., Austin, O., Pascual, J., Gaite, L., and Herrera, S. (1992). The epidemiology of head injury in Cantabria. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 8, 832–837
    1. Perez, K., Novoa, A.M., Santamarina-Rubio, E., Narvaez, Y., Arrufat, V., Borrell, C., Cabeza, E., Cirera, E., Ferrando, J., Garcia-Altes, A., Gonzalez-Luque, J.C., Lizarbe, V., Martin-Cantera, C., Segui-Gomez, M., and Suelves, J.M. (2012). Incidence trends of traumatic spinal cord injury and traumatic brain injury in Spain, 2000–2009. Accid. Anal. Prev. 46, 37–44
    1. Servadei, F., Bastianelli, S., Naccarato, G., Staffa, G., Morganti, G., and Gaist, G. (1985). Epidemiology and sequelae of head injury in San Marino Republic. J. Neurosurg. Sci. 29, 297–303
    1. Andelic, N., Sigurdardottir, S., Brunborg, C., and Roe, C. (2008). Incidence of hospital-treated traumatic brain injury in the Oslo population. Neuroepidemiology 30, 120–128
    1. Servadei, F., Ciucci, G., Piazza, G., Bianchedi, G., Rebucci, G., Gaist, G., and Taggi, F. (1988). A prospective clinical and epidemiological study of head injuries in northern Italy: the Comune of Ravenna. Ital. J. Neurol. Sci. 9, 449–457
    1. Steudel, W.I., Cortbus, F., and Schwerdtfeger, K. (2005). Epidemiology and prevention of fatal head injuries in Germany–trends and the impact of the reunification. Acta Neurochir. 147, 231–242
    1. Mauritz, W., Brazinova, A., Majdan, M., and Leitgeb, J. (2014). Epidemiology of traumatic brain injury in Austria. Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. 126, 42–52
    1. Rickels, E., von Wild, K., and Wenzlaff, P. (2010). Head injury in Germany: A population-based prospective study on epidemiology, causes, treatment and outcome of all degrees of head-injury severity in two distinct areas. Brain Inj. 24, 1491–1504
    1. Styrke, J., Stalnacke, B.M., Sojka, P., and Bjornstig, U. (2007). Traumatic brain injuries in a well-defined population: epidemiological aspects and severity. J. Neurotrauma 24, 1425–1436
    1. Frohlich, S., Johnson, P., and Moriarty, J. (2011). Prevalence, management and outcomes of traumatic brain injury patients admitted to an Irish intensive care unit. Ir. J. Med. Sci. 180, 423–427
    1. Hawley, C., Wilson, J., Hickson, C., Mills, S., Ekeocha, S., and Sakr, M. (2013). Epidemiology of paediatric minor head injury: Comparison of injury characteristics with Indices of Multiple Deprivation. Injury 44, 1855–1861
    1. Hawley, C.A., Ward, A.B., Long, J., Owen, D.W., and Magnay, A.R. (2003). Prevalence of traumatic brain injury amongst children admitted to hospital in one health district: a population-based study. Injury 34, 256–260
    1. Danielle van Pelt, E., de Kloet, A., Hilberink, S.R., Lambregts, S.A., Peeters, E., Roebroeck, M.E., and Catsman-Berrevoets, C.E. (2011). The incidence of traumatic brain injury in young people in the catchment area of the University Hospital Rotterdam, The Netherlands. Eur. J. Paediatr. Neurol. 15, 519–526
    1. Fabbri, A., Servadei, F., Marchesini, G., Negro, A., and Vandelli, A. (2010). The changing face of mild head injury: temporal trends and patterns in adolescents and adults from 1997 to 2008. Injury 41, 913–917
    1. Summers, C.R., Ivins, B., and Schwab, K.A. (2009). Traumatic brain injury in the United States: an epidemiologic overview. Mt. Sinai J. Med. 76, 105–110
    1. Coronado, V.G., Xu, L., Basavaraju, S.V., McGuire, L.C., Wald, M.M., Faul, M.D., Guzman, B.R., and Hemphill, J.D. (2011). Surveillance for traumatic brain injury-related deaths–United States, 1997–2007. MMWR Surveill. Summ. 60, 1–32
    1. Bruns, J. Jr. and Hauser, W.A. (2003). The epidemiology of traumatic brain injury: a review. Epilepsia 44 Suppl 10, 2–10
    1. Feigin, V.L., Theadom, A., Barker-Collo, S., Starkey, N.J., McPherson, K., Kahan, M., Dowell, A., Brown, P., Parag, V., Kydd, R., Jones, K., Jones, A., and Ameratunga, S. (2013). Incidence of traumatic brain injury in New Zealand: a population-based study. Lancet Neurol. 12, 53–64
    1. Roozenbeek, B., Maas, A.I., and Menon, D.K. (2013). Changing patterns in the epidemiology of traumatic brain injury. Nat. Rev. Neurol. 9, 231–236
    1. Rusnak, M., Janciak, I., Majdan, M., Wilbacher, I., and Mauritz, W. (2007). Severe traumatic brain injury in Austria VI: effects of guideline-based management. Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. 119, 64–71
    1. Hartholt, K.A., Van Lieshout, E.M., Polinder, S., Panneman, M.J., Van der Cammen, T.J., and Patka, P. (2011). Rapid increase in hospitalizations resulting from fall-related traumatic head injury in older adults in The Netherlands 1986–2008. J. Neurotrauma 28, 739–744
    1. Puljula, J., Makinen, E., Cygnel, H., Kortelainen, M.L., and Hillbom, M. (2013). Incidence of moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injuries after reduction in alcohol prices. Acta Neurol. Scand. 127, 192–197
    1. Kannus, P., Palvanen, M., Niemi, S., Parkkari, J., Natri, A., Vuori, I., and Jarvinen, M. (1999). Increasing number and incidence of fall-induced severe head injuries in older adults: nationwide statistics in Finland in 1970–1995 and prediction for the future. Am. J. Epidemiol. 149, 143–150
    1. Jennett, B. and MacMillan, R. (1981). Epidemiology of head injury. Br. Med. J. (Clin. Res. Ed.) 282, 101–104
    1. Engberg Aa, W. and Teasdale, T.W. (2001). Traumatic brain injury in Denmark 1979–1996. A national study of incidence and mortality. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 17, 437–442
    1. Mauritz, W., Brazinova, A., Majdan, M., Rehorcikova, V., and Leitgeb, J. (2014). Deaths due to traumatic brain injury in Austria between 1980 and 2012. Brain Inj. 28, 1096–1101
    1. Brazinova, A., Mauritz, W., Majdan, M., Rehorcikova, V., and Leitgeb, J. (2014). Fatal traumatic brain injury in older adults in Austria 1980–2012: an analysis of 33 years. Age Ageing 44, 502–506
    1. Majdan, M., Mauritz, W., Rusnak, M., Brazinova, A., Rehorcikova, V., and Leitgeb, J. (2014). Long-term trends and patterns of fatal traumatic brain injuries in the pediatric and adolescent population of austria in 1980–2012: analysis of 33 years. J. Neurotrauma 31, 1046–1055
    1. Williamson, L.M., Morrison, A., and Stone, D.H. (2002). Trends in head injury mortality among 0–14 year olds in Scotland (1986–95). J. Epidemiol. Community Health 56, 285–288
    1. Sundstrom, T., Sollid, S., Wentzel-Larsen, T., and Wester, K. (2007). Head injury mortality in the Nordic countries. J. Neurotrauma 24, 147–153
    1. Kleiven, S., Peloso, P.M., and von Holst, H. (2003). The epidemiology of head injuries in Sweden from 1987 to 2000. Inj. Control Saf. Promot. 10, 173–180
    1. Alaranta, H., Koskinen, S., Leppanen, L., and Palomaki, H. (2000). Nationwide epidemiology of hospitalized patients with first-time traumatic brain injury with special reference to prevention. Wien. Med. Wochenschr. 150, 444–448
    1. Koskinen, S. and Alaranta, H. (2008). Traumatic brain injury in Finland 1991–2005: a nationwide register study of hospitalized and fatal TBI. Brain Inj. 22, 205–214
    1. Dias, C., Rocha, J., Pereira, E., and Cerejo, A. (2014). Traumatic brain injury in Portugal: trends in hospital admissions from 2000 to 2010. Acta Med. Port. 27, 349–356
    1. Andelic, N., Anke, A., Skandsen, T., Sigurdardottir, S., Sandhaug, M., Ader, T., and Roe, C. (2012). Incidence of hospital-admitted severe traumatic brain injury and in-hospital fatality in Norway: a national cohort study. Neuroepidemiology 38, 259–267
    1. Scholten, A.C., Haagsma, J.A., Panneman, M.J., van Beeck, E.F., and Polinder, S. (2014). Traumatic brain injury in the Netherlands: incidence, costs and disability-adjusted life years. PLoS One 9, e110905.
    1. Winqvist, S., Lehtilahti, M., Jokelainen, J., Luukinen, H., and Hillbom, M. (2007). Traumatic brain injuries in children and young adults: a birth cohort study from northern Finland. Neuroepidemiology 29, 136–142
    1. Berney, J., Favier, J., and Rilliet, B. (1995). Head injuries in children: a chronicle of a quarter of a century. Childs. Nerv. Syst. 11, 256–264
    1. Berney, J., Favier, J., and Froidevaux, A.C. (1994). Paediatric head trauma: influence of age and sex. I. Epidemiology. Childs. Nerv. Syst. 10, 509–516
    1. Nestvold, K., Lundar, T., Blikra, G., and Lonnum, A. (1988). Head injuries during one year in a central hospital in Norway: a prospective study. Epidemiologic features. Neuroepidemiology 7, 134–144
    1. Edna, T.H. and Cappelen, J. (1984). Hospital admitted head injury. A prospective study in Trondelag, Norway, 1979–80. Scand. J. Soc. Med. 12, 7–14
    1. Edna, T.H. and Cappelen, J. (1985). Head injury in road traffic accidents. A prospective Study in Trondelag, Norway, 1979–80. Scand. J. Soc. Med. 13, 23–27
    1. Lopez Alvarez, J.M., Valeron Lemaur, M.E., Perez Quevedo, O., Liminana Canal, J.M., Jimenez Bravo de Laguna, A., Consuegra Llapurt, E., Moron Saen de Casas, A., and Gonzalez Jorge, R. (2011). [Severe pediatric head injuries (I). Epidemiology, clinical manifestations and course]. Med. Intensiva 35, 331–336
    1. Johansson, E., Ronnkvist, M., and Fugl-Meyer, A.R. (1991). Traumatic brain injury in northern Sweden. Incidence and prevalence of long-standing impairments and disabilities. Scand. J. Rehabil. Med. 23, 179–185
    1. Tiret, L., Hausherr, E., Thicoipe, M., Garros, B., Maurette, P., Castel, J.P., and Hatton, F. (1990). The epidemiology of head trauma in Aquitaine (France), 1986: a community-based study of hospital admissions and deaths. Int. J. Epidemiol. 19, 133–140
    1. Emanuelson, I. and v Wendt, L. (1997). Epidemiology of traumatic brain injury in children and adolescents in south-western Sweden. Acta Paediatr. 86, 730–735
    1. Arnarson, E.O. and Halldorsson, J.G. (1995). Head trauma among children in Reykjavik. Acta Paediatr. 84, 96–99
    1. Bouillon, B., Raum, M., Fach, H., Buchheister, B., Lefering, R., Menzel, J., and Klug, N. (1999). The incidence and outcome of severe brain trauma - Design and first results of an epidemiological study in an urban area. Restor. Neurol. Neurosci. 14, 85–92
    1. Maegele, M., Engel, D., Bouillon, B., Lefering, R., Fach, H., Raum, M., Buchheister, B., Schaefer, U., Klug, N., and Neugebauer, E. (2007). Incidence and outcome of traumatic brain injury in an urban area in Western Europe over 10 years. Eur. Surg. Res. 39, 372–379
    1. Andersson, E.H., Bjorklund, R., Emanuelson, I., and Stalhammar, D. (2003). Epidemiology of traumatic brain injury: a population based study in western Sweden. Acta Neurol. Scand. 107, 256–259
    1. Ingebrigtsen, T., Mortensen, K., and Romner, B. (1998). The epidemiology of hospital-referred head injury in northern Norway. Neuroepidemiology 17, 139–146
    1. Javouhey, E., Guerin, A.C., and Chiron, M. (2006). Incidence and risk factors of severe traumatic brain injury resulting from road accidents: a population-based study. Accid. Anal. Prev. 38, 225–233
    1. Baldo, V., Marcolongo, A., Floreani, A., Majori, S., Cristofolettil, M., Dal Zotto, A., Vazzoler, G., and Trivello, R. (2003). Epidemiological aspect of traumatic brain injury in Northeast Italy. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 18, 1059–1063
    1. Masson, F., Thicoipe, M., Aye, P., Mokni, T., Senjean, P., Schmitt, V., Dessalles, P.H., Cazaugade, M., and Labadens, P. (2001). Epidemiology of severe brain injuries: a prospective population-based study. J. Trauma 51, 481–489
    1. Servadei, F., Antonelli, V., Betti, L., Chieregato, A., Fainardi, E., Gardini, E., Giuliani, G., Salizzato, L., and Kraus, J.F. (2002). Regional brain injury epidemiology as the basis for planning brain injury treatment. The Romagna (Italy) experience. J. Neurosurg. Sci. 46, 111–119
    1. Di Bartolomeo, S., Sanson, G., Nardi, G., Scian, F., Michelutto, V., and Lattuada, L. (2001). Effects of 2 patterns of prehospital care on the outcome of patients with severe head injury. Arch. Surg. 136, 1293–1300
    1. Servadei, F., Verlicchi, A., Soldano, F., Zanotti, B., and Piffer, S. (2002). Descriptive epidemiology of head injury in Romagna and Trentino. Comparison between two geographically different Italian regions. Neuroepidemiology 21, 297–304
    1. Dahl, E., von Wendt, L., and Emanuelson, I. (2006). A prospective, population-based, follow-up study of mild traumatic brain injury in children. Injury 37, 402–409
    1. Ventsel, G., Kolk, A., Talvik, I., Vali, M., Vaikmaa, M., and Talvik, T. (2008). The incidence of childhood traumatic brain injury in Tartu and Tartu County in Estonia. Neuroepidemiology 30, 20–24
    1. Rosso, A., Brazinova, A., Janciak, I., Wilbacher, I., Rusnak, M., and Mauritz, W. (2007). Severe traumatic brain injury in Austria II: epidemiology of hospital admissions. Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. 119, 29–34
    1. Mauritz, W., Wilbacher, I., Majdan, M., Leitgeb, J., Janciak, I., Brazinova, A., and Rusnak, M. (2008). Epidemiology, treatment and outcome of patients after severe traumatic brain injury in European regions with different economic status. Eur. J. Public Health 18, 575–580
    1. Numminen, H.J. (2011). The incidence of traumatic brain injury in an adult population–how to classify mild cases? Eur. J. Neurol. 18, 460–464
    1. Falk, A.C., Klang, B., Paavonen, E.J., and von Wendt, L. (2007). Current incidence and management of children with traumatic head injuries: the Stockholm experience. Dev. Neurorehabil. 10, 49–55
    1. Heskestad, B., Baardsen, R., Helseth, E., Romner, B., Waterloo, K., and Ingebrigtsen, T. (2009). Incidence of hospital referred head injuries in Norway: a population based survey from the Stavanger region. Scand. J. Trauma Resusc. Emerg. Med. 17, 6.
    1. Andriessen, T.M., Horn, J., Franschman, G., van der Naalt, J., Haitsma, I., Jacobs, B., Steyerberg, E.W., and Vos, P.E. (2011). Epidemiology, severity classification, and outcome of moderate and severe traumatic brain injury: a prospective multicenter study. J. Neurotrauma 28, 2019–2031
    1. Roe, C., Skandsen, T., Anke, A., Ader, T., Vik, A., Lund, S.B., Mannskow, U., Sollid, S., Sundstrom, T., Hestnes, M., and Andelic, N. (2013). Severe traumatic brain injury in Norway: impact of age on outcome. J. Rehabil. Med. 45, 734–740
    1. Katsaragakis, S., Drimousis, P.G., Toutouzas, K., Stefanatou, M., Larentzakis, A., Theodoraki, M.E., Stergiopoulos, S., and Theodorou, D. (2010). Traumatic brain injury in Greece: report of a countrywide registry. Brain Inj. 24, 871–876
    1. Foulkes, M.A., Eisenberg, H.M., Jane, J.A., Marmarou, A., and Marshall, L.F. (1991). The Traumatic Coma Data Bank: Design, methods, and baseline characteristics. J. Neurosurg. 75 Suppl 1, 8–13

Source: PubMed

Sponsorzy i współpracownicy

Warunki medyczne

Interwencje lekowe

3
Subskrybuj