The anticipation and outcome phases of reward and loss processing: A neuroimaging meta-analysis of the monetary incentive delay task

Stuart Oldham, Carsten Murawski, Alex Fornito, George Youssef, Murat Yücel, Valentina Lorenzetti, Stuart Oldham, Carsten Murawski, Alex Fornito, George Youssef, Murat Yücel, Valentina Lorenzetti

Abstract

The processing of rewards and losses are crucial to everyday functioning. Considerable interest has been attached to investigating the anticipation and outcome phases of reward and loss processing, but results to date have been inconsistent. It is unclear if anticipation and outcome of a reward or loss recruit similar or distinct brain regions. In particular, while the striatum has widely been found to be active when anticipating a reward, whether it activates in response to the anticipation of losses as well remains ambiguous. Furthermore, concerning the orbitofrontal/ventromedial prefrontal regions, activation is often observed during reward receipt. However, it is unclear if this area is active during reward anticipation as well. We ran an Activation Likelihood Estimation meta-analysis of 50 fMRI studies, which used the Monetary Incentive Delay Task (MIDT), to identify which brain regions are implicated in the anticipation of rewards, anticipation of losses, and the receipt of reward. Anticipating rewards and losses recruits overlapping areas including the striatum, insula, amygdala and thalamus, suggesting that a generalised neural system initiates motivational processes independent of valence. The orbitofrontal/ventromedial prefrontal regions were recruited only during the reward outcome, likely representing the value of the reward received. Our findings help to clarify the neural substrates of the different phases of reward and loss processing, and advance neurobiological models of these processes.

Keywords: anticipation; loss; monetary incentive delay task; outcome; reward.

Conflict of interest statement

All authors report no conflict of interest.

© 2018 The Authors Human Brain Mapping Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
The structure of the MIDT. (a) Examples of cues signifying trial type (e.g. a square with two lines indicates a punishment trial where $5 can potentially be lost, a circle with a single line indicates a reward trial where $1 can potentially be obtained). (b) Time course of a trial on the MIDT. In the cue stage (first screen), corresponding to the anticipation phase of reward/loss processing, a symbol appears indicating the trial type (reward, loss or neutral). After a delay (second screen) a target appears (third screen), and participants are instructed to press a button as quickly as possible when the target appears. If participants press the button quickly enough they gain money (reward trials) or avoid losing money (loss trials) and are informed of this during the feedback stage (fourth screen), corresponding to the outcome phase. The time window within which the participant has to make a response to obtain a successful outcome is constantly adjusted such that the participant succeeds on an expected 60‐66% of trials (Knutson et al., 2000). Note that the timings depicted are an example only. These timings vary from study to study
Figure 2
Figure 2
ALE single analysis results. (a) Single analysis of reward anticipation (contrast LA). (b) Single analysis of loss anticipation (contrast LA). (c) Single analysis of reward outcome (contrast RO). Single analyses were conducted with a cluster‐forming threshold of p < .001 uncorrected and a cluster‐level threshold of p < .05 [Color figure can be viewed at http://wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Figure 3
Figure 3
ALE results for the conjunction and subtraction analysis between of reward anticipation and loss anticipation. (a) Subtraction analysis of reward anticipation relative to loss anticipation (contrast RA‐LA). (b) Subtraction analysis of loss anticipation relative to reward anticipation (contrast LA‐RA). (c) Conjunction analysis of reward anticipation and loss anticipation (contrast RA + LA). Subtraction analyses were conducted with a significance level of p < .005 [Color figure can be viewed at http://wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Figure 4
Figure 4
ALE results for the conjunction and subtraction analysis between reward anticipation and reward outcome. (a) Subtraction analysis of reward anticipation relative to reward outcome (contrast RA‐RO). (b) Subtraction analysis of reward outcome relative to reward anticipation (contrast RO‐RA). (c) Conjunction analysis of reward anticipation and reward outcome (contrast RA + RO). Subtraction analyses were conducted with a significance level of p < .001 [Color figure can be viewed at http://wileyonlinelibrary.com]

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