Excess Surgical Mortality: Strategies for Improving Quality of Care

Thomas G Weiser, Atul Gawande, Haile T Debas, Peter Donkor, Atul Gawande, Dean T Jamison, Margaret E Kruk, Charles N Mock, Thomas G Weiser, Atul Gawande, Haile T Debas, Peter Donkor, Atul Gawande, Dean T Jamison, Margaret E Kruk, Charles N Mock

Excerpt

The World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that 234 million operations are performed worldwide each year (Weiser and others 2008). The WHO’s analysis establishes three significant findings:

  1. Surgical interventions take place on a massive and previously unrecognized scale in all countries and resource settings.

  2. The inequity in service provision among countries and settings is dramatic.

  3. Little is known about the indications for, and the quality, safety, and outcomes of, surgical care.

© 2015 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank.

References

    1. Abantanga F A. 2003. “Groin and Scrotal Swellings in Children Aged 5 Years and Below: A Review of 535 Cases.” Pediatric Surgery International 19 (6): 446–50.
    1. Abantanga F A, Nimako B, Amoah M. 2009. “The Range of Abdominal Surgical Emergencies in Children Older Than 1 Year at the Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi, Ghana.” Annals of African Medicine 8 (4): 236–42.
    1. Abbassi H, Aboulfalah A, Morsad F, Matar N, Himmi A, Mansouri A E. 2000. “Maternal Complications of Cesarean Section: Retrospective Analysis of 3,231 Interventions at the Casablanca University Hospital, Morocco.” [In French.] Santé 10 (6): 419–23.
    1. Aderounmu A O, Afolayan S A, Nasiru T A, Olaore J A, Adeoti M L, Adelasoye M. 2008. “Rotational Rural Surgery for the Poor in Developing Countries.” Tropical Doctor 38 (3): 141–44.
    1. Adesunkanmi A R, Badmos T A, Salako A A. 2000. “Groin Hernias in Patients 50 Years of Age and Above Pattern and Outcome of Management in 250 Consecutive Patients.” West African Journal of Medicine 19 (2): 142–47.
    1. Adisa A O, Alatise O I, Arowolo O A, Lawal O O. 2012. “Laparoscopic Appendectomy in a Nigerian Teaching Hospital.” Journal of the Society of Laparoendoscopic Surgeons 16 (4): 576–80.
    1. Afsana K. 2004. “The Tremendous Cost of Seeking Hospital Obstetric Care in Bangladesh.” Reproductive Health Matters 12 (24): 171–80.
    1. Akcakaya A et al. 2000. “Mechanical Intestinal Obstruction Caused by Abdominal Wall Hernias.” [In Turkish.] Ulusal Travma Dergisi [Turkish journal of trauma and emergency surgery] 6 (4): 260–265.
    1. Akinci M, Ergül Z, Kulah B, Yilmaz K B, Kulacoğlu H. 2010. “Risk Factors Related with Unfavorable Outcomes in Groin Hernia Repairs.” Hernia 14 (5): 489–93.
    1. Ali N, Aliyu S. 2012. “Appendicitis and Its Surgical Management Experience at the University of Maiduguri Teaching Hospital Nigeria.” Nigerian Journal of Medicine 21 (2): 223–26.
    1. Ameh E A. 2002. “Morbidity and Mortality of Inguinal Hernia in the Newborn.” Nigerian Postgraduate Medical Journal 9 (4): 233–34.
    1. Asefa Z. 2002. “Acute Appendicitis in Yirgalem Hospital, Southern Ethiopia.” Ethiopian Medical Journal 40 (2): 155–62.
    1. Awojobi O A, Ayantunde A A. 2004. “Inguinal Hernia in Nigeria.” Tropical Doctor 34(3): 180–81.
    1. Ayoade B A, Olawoye O A, Salami B A, Banjo A A. 2006. “Acute Appendicitis in Olabisi Onabanjo University Teaching Hospital Sagamu: A Three-Year Review.” Nigerian Journal of Clinical Practice 9 (1): 52–56.
    1. Bainbridge D, Martin J, Arango M, Cheng D. 2012. “Perioperative and Anaesthetic-Related Mortality in Developed and Developing Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” The Lancet 380 (9847): 1075–81.
    1. Bano N, Chaudhri R, Yasmeen L, Shafi F, Ejaz L. 2011. “A Study of Maternal Mortality in 8 Principal Hospitals in Pakistan in 2009.” International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 114 (3): 255–59.
    1. Basak S, Kanungo S, Majhi C. 2011. “Symphysiotomy: Is It Obsolete?” Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research 37 (7): 770–74.
    1. Batajoo H, Hazra N K. 2012. “Laparoscopic versus Open Appendectomy in Acute Appendicitis.” Journal of Nepal Health Research Council 10 (22): 239–42.
    1. Bay-Nielsen M, Kehlet H, Strand L, Malmstrom J, Andersen F H. others. 2001. “Quality Assessment of 26,304 Herniorrhaphies in Denmark: A Prospective Nationwide Study.” The Lancet 358 (9288): 1124–28.
    1. Birkmeyer J D. 2010. “Strategies for Improving Surgical Quality: Checklists and Beyond.” New England Journal of Medicine 363 (20): 1963–65.
    1. Blomqvist P G, Andersson R E, Granath F, Lambe M P, Ekbom A R. 2001. “Mortality after Appendectomy in Sweden, 1987–1996.” Annals of Surgery 233 (4): 455–60.
    1. Bloom N, Eifert B, Mahajan A, McKenzie D, Roberts J. 2013. “Does Management Matter? Evidence from India.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 128 (1): 1–51.
    1. Bloom N, Mahajan A, McKenzie D, Roberts J. 2010. “Why Do Firms in Developing Countries Have Low Productivity?” American Economic Review: Papers and Proceedings 100 (2): 619–23.
    1. Bloom N, Sadun R, van Reenen J. 2012. “The Organization of Firms across Countries.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 127 (4): 1663–705.
    1. Bloom N, van Reenen J. 2007. “Measuring and Explaining Management Practices across Firms and Countries.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 122 (4): 1351–408.
    1. Bloom N, van Reenen J. 2010. “Why Do Management Practices Differ across Firms and Countries?” Journal of Economic Perspectives 24 (1): 203–24.
    1. Bouvier-Colle M H, Ouedraogo C A, Dumont C, Vangeenderhuysen B, Salanave Decam C. 2001. “Maternal Mortality in West Africa: Rates, Causes, and Substandard Care from a Prospective Survey.” Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 80 (2): 113–19.
    1. Bowman K G, Jovic G S, Rangel W R, Berry A, Gawande A. 2013. “Pediatric Emergency and Essential Surgical Care in Zambian Hospitals: A Nationwide Study.” Journal of Pediatric Surgery 48 (6): 1363–70.
    1. Briand V, Dumont A, Abrahamowicz M, Sow A, Traore M, Rozenberg P, Watier L, Fournier P. 2012. “Maternal and Perinatal Outcomes by Mode of Delivery in Senegal and Mali: A Cross-Sectional Epidemiological Survey.” PLoS One 7 (10): e47352.
    1. Briesen S, Geneau R, Roberts H, Opiyo J, Courtright P. 2010. “Understanding Why Patients with Cataract Refuse Free Surgery: The Influence of Rumours in Kenya.” Tropical Medicine and International Health 15 (5): 534–39.
    1. Burch V C, McKinley D, van Wyk J, Kiguli-Walube S, Cameron D. others. 2011. “Career Intentions of Medical Students Trained in Six Sub-Saharan African Countries.” Education for Health (Abingdon) 24 (3): 614.
    1. Burn S, Chilton P, Gawande A, Lilford R. 2014. “Perioperative Pulse Oximetry in Low-Income Countries: A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 92 858–67.
    1. Bury E, Carter K, Feigelman M, Grant J. 2007. “How Service-Line Management Can Improve Hospital Performance.” Health International 7 54–65. .
    1. Carthey J, de M R, Leval J, Reason T. 2001. “The Human Factor in Cardiac Surgery: Errors and Near Misses in a High Technology Medical Domain.” Annals of Thoracic Surgery 72 (1): 300–05.
    1. Ceesay S J, Casals-Pascual C, Erskine J, Anya S E, Duah N O. others. 2008. “Changes in Malaria Indices between 1999 and 2007 in The Gambia: A Retrospective Analysis.” The Lancet 372 (9649): 1545–54.
    1. Chauhan A, Tiwari S, Gupta A. 2007. “Study of Efficacy of Bilayer Mesh Device versus Conventional Polypropelene Hernia System in Inguinal Hernia Repair: Early Results.” World Journal of Surgery 31 (6): 1356–59; discussion 1360–61.
    1. Chamisa I. 2009. “A Clinicopathological Review of 324 Appendices Removed for Acute Appendicitis in Durban, South Africa: A Retrospective Analysis.” Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England 91 (8): 688–92.
    1. Chavda S K, Hassan S, Magoha G A. 2000. “Appendicitis at Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi.” East African Medical Journal 82 (10): 526–30.
    1. Chilopora G, Pereira C, Kamwendo F, Chimbiri A, Malunga E, Bergström S. 2007. “Postoperative Outcome of Caesarean Sections and Other Major Emergency Obstetric Surgery by Clinical Officers and Medical Officers in Malawi.” Human Resources for Health 5: 17.
    1. Chongsuvivatwong V, Bachtiar H, Chowdhury M E, Fernando S, Suwanrath C, Kor-Anantakul O, Tuan le A, Lim A, Lumbiganon P, Manandhar B, Muchtar M, Nahar L, Hieu N T, Fang P X, Prasertcharoensuk W, Radnaabarzar E, Sibuea D, Than K K, Tharnpaisan P, Thach T S, Rowe P. 2010. “Maternal and Fetal Mortality and Complications Associated with Cesarean Section Deliveries in Teaching Hospitals in Asia.” Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research 36 (1): 45–51.
    1. Chu K, Cortier H, Maldonado F, Mashant T, Ford N, Trelles M. 2012. “Cesarean Section Rates and Indications in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Multi-Country Study from Medecins sans Frontieres.” PLoS One 7 (9): e44484.
    1. Chung C H. et al. 2000. “Delays by Patients, Emergency Physicians, and Surgeons in the Management of Acute Appendicitis: Retrospective Study.” Hong Kong Medical Journal 6 (3): 254–59.
    1. Cingi A. et al. 2005. “Use of Resterilized Polypropylene Mesh in Inguinal Hernia Repair: A Prospective, Randomized Study.” Journal of the American College of Surgeons 201 (6): 834–40.
    1. Clarke M G. et al. 2009. “The Use of Sterilised Polyester Mosquito Net Mesh for Inguinal Hernia Repair in Ghana.” Hernia 13 (2): 155–59.
    1. Cunnigaiper N D. et al. 2010. “Does Ochsner-Sherren Regimen Still Hold True in the Management of Appendicular Mass?” Ulusal Travma Ve Acil Cerrahi Dergisi-Turkish Journal of Trauma & Emergency Surgery 16 (1): 43–46.
    1. Das J, Holla A, Das V, Mohanan M, Tabak D. others. 2012. “In Urban and Rural India, a Standardized Patient Study Showed Low Levels of Provider Training and Huge Quality Gaps.” Health Affairs (Millwood) 31 (12): 2774–84.
    1. de Leval M R, Carthey J, Wright D J, Farewell V T, Reason R T. 2000. “Human Factors and Cardiac Surgery: A Multicenter Study.” Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 119 (4 Pt 1): 661–72.
    1. de Vries E N, Prins H A, Crolla R M, den Outer A J, van Andel G. others. 2010. “Effect of a Comprehensive Surgical Safety System on Patient Outcomes.” New England Journal of Medicine 363 (20): 1928–37.
    1. Diarra B. et al. 2001. “Experience with Preperitoneal Hernioplasty Using Stoppa’s Procedures in the Ivory Coast.” [In French.] Annales de Chirurgie 126 (4): 325–29.
    1. Dumont A, de Bernis L, Bouvier-Colle M H, Breart G. 2001. “Caesarean Section Rate for Maternal Indication in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Review.” The Lancet 358 (9290): 1328–33.
    1. Dye T D, Bogale S, Hobden C, Tilahun Y, Hechter V. others. 2010. “Complex Care Systems in Developing Countries: Breast Cancer Patient Navigation in Ethiopia.” Cancer 116 (3): 577–85.
    1. Eichhorn J H, Cooper J B, Cullen D J, Maier W R, Philip J H. others. 1986. “Standards for Patient Monitoring during Anesthesia at Harvard Medical School.” Journal of the American Medical Association 256 (8): 1017–20.
    1. Ekenze S O, Anyanwu P A, Ezomike U O, Oguonu T. 2010. “Profile of Pediatric Abdominal Surgical Emergencies in a Developing Country.” International Surgery 95 (4): 319–24.
    1. ElRashied M, Widatalla A H, Ahmed M E. 2007. “External Strangulated Hernia in Khartoum, Sudan.” East African Medical Journal 84 (8): 379–82.
    1. Fahim F, Shirjeel S. 2005. “A Comparison between Presenatation Time and Delay in Surgery in Simple and Advanced Appendicitis.” Journal of Ayub Medical College Abbottabad 17 (2): 37–39.
    1. Farthouat P, Fall O, Ogougbemy M, Sow A, Millon A. others. 2005. “Appendicectomy in the tropics: Prospective study at Hopital Principal in Dakar.” [In French.] Médecine tropicale (Mars) 65 (6): 549–53.
    1. Fashina I B, Adesanya A A, Atoyebi O A, Osinowo O O, Atimomo C J. 2009. “Acute Appendicitis in Lagos: A Review of 250 Cases.” Nigerian Postgraduate Medical Journal 16 (4): 268–73.
    1. Fauveau V. 2007. “Using UN Process Indicators to Assess Needs in Emergency Obstetric Services: Gabon, Guinea-Bissau, and The Gambia.” International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics 96 (3): 233–40.
    1. Fenton P M, Whitty C J, Reynolds F. 2003. “Caesarean Section in Malawi: Prospective Study of Early Maternal and Perinatal Mortality.” BMJ 327 (7415): 587.
    1. Fesseha N, Getachew A, Hiluf M, Gebrehiwot Y, Bailey P. 2011. “A National Review of Cesarean Delivery in Ethiopia.” International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 115 (1): 106–11.
    1. Freudenberg S, Sano D, Ouangré E, Weiss C, Wilhelm T J. 2006. “Commercial Mesh versus Nylon Mosquito Net for Hernia Repair. A Randomized Double-Blind Study in Burkina Faso.” World Journal of Surgery 30 (10): 1784–89; discussion 1790.
    1. Funk L M, Conley D M, Berry W R, Gawande A A. 2013. “Hospital Management Practices and Availability of Surgery in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Pilot Study of Three Hospitals.” World Journal of Surgery 37 (11): 2520–28.
    1. Funk L M, Weiser T G, Berry W R, Lipsitz S R, Merry A F. others. 2010. “Global Operating Theatre Distribution and Pulse Oximetry Supply: An Estimation from Reported Data.” The Lancet 376 (9746): 1055–61.
    1. Gao J S, Wang Z J, Zhao B, Ma S Z, Pang G Y. others. 2009. “Inguinal Hernia Repair with Tension-Free Hernioplasty under Local Anesthesia.” Saudi Medical Journal 30 (4): 534–36.
    1. Gauthier B, Wane W. 2011. “Bypassing Health Providers: The Quest for Better Price and Quality of Health Care in Chad.” Social Science and Medicine 73 (4): 540–49.
    1. Gavilan-Yodu R L. 2010. “Morbilidad y mortalidad por apendicitis aguda en el hospital integral comunitario del municipio Monteagudo (2006–2008).” MEDISAN 14: 2010–2016.
    1. Ghaferi A A, Birkmeyer J D, Dimick J B. 2009a. “Complications, Failure to Rescue, and Mortality with Major Inpatient Surgery in Medicare Patients.” Annals of Surgery 250 (6): 1029–34.
    1. Ghaferi A A, Birkmeyer J D, Dimick J B. 2009b. “Variation in Hospital Mortality Associated with Inpatient Surgery.” New England Journal of Medicine 361 (14): 1368–75.
    1. Ghaferi A A, Birkmeyer J D, Dimick J B. 2011. “Hospital Volume and Failure to Rescue with High-Risk Surgery.” Medical Care 49 (12): 1076–81.
    1. Gibbons L, Belizán J M, Lauer J A, Betrán A P, Merialdi M. and others. 2010. “The Global Numbers and Costs of Additionally Needed and Unnecessary Caesarean Sections Performed per Year: Overuse as a Barrier to Universal Coverage.” World Health Report Background Paper 30, World Health Organization, Geneva.
    1. Gil J, Rodríguez J M, Hernández Q, Gil E, Balsalobre M D. others. 2012. “Do Hernia Operations in African International Cooperation Programmes Provide Good Quality?” World Journal of Surgery 36 (12): 2795–801.
    1. Glenshaw M, Madzimbamuto F D. 2005. “Anaesthesia-Associated Mortality in a District Hospital in Zimbabwe: 1994 to 2001.” Central African Journal of Medicine 51 (3–4): 39–44.
    1. Goldie S J. 2003. “Chapter 15: Public Health Policy and Cost-Effectiveness Analysis.” Journal of the National Cancer Institute Monograph 31 102–10.
    1. Grimes C E, Bowman K G, Dodgion C M, Lavy C B. 2011. “Systematic Review of Barriers to Surgical Care in Low-Income and Middle-Income Countries.” World Journal of Surgery 35 (5): 941–50.
    1. Groen R S, Samai M, Stewart K A, Cassidy L D, Kamara T B. others. 2012. “Untreated Surgical Conditions in Sierra Leone: A Cluster Randomised, Cross-Sectional, Countrywide Survey.” The Lancet 380 (9847): 1082–87.
    1. Gurleyik G, Gurleyik E. 2003. “Age-Related Clinical Features in Older Patients with Acute Appendicitis.” European Journal of Emergency Medicine 10 (3): 200–03.
    1. Hang H M, Byass P. 2009. “Difficulties in Getting Treatment for Injuries in Rural Vietnam.” Public Health 123 (1): 58–65.
    1. Harouna Y, Yaya H, Abdou I, Bazira L. 2001. “Prognosis of Strangulated Hernia in Adult With Necrosis of Small Bowel: A 34 Cases Report.” Bulletin de la Societe de Pathologie Exotique 93 (5): 317–20.
    1. Haynes A B, Weiser T G, Berry W R, Lipsitz S R, Breizat A H. others. 2009. “A Surgical Safety Checklist to Reduce Morbidity and Mortality in a Global Population.” New England Journal of Medicine 360 (5): 491–99.
    1. Hogberg U. 1989. “Maternal Deaths Related to Cesarean Section in Sweden, 1951–1980.” Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 68 (4): 351–57.
    1. Huang C S, Huang C C, Lien H H. 2005. “Prolene Hernia System Compared with Mesh Plug Technique: A Prospective Study of Short- to Mid-term Outcomes in Primary Groin Hernia Repair.” Hernia 9 (2): 167–71.
    1. Hughes C D, McClain C D, Hagander L, Pierre J H, Groen R S. others. 2012. “Ratio of Cesarean Deliveries to Total Operations and Surgeon Nationality Are Potential Proxies for Surgical Capacity in Central Haiti.” World Journal of Surgery 37 (7): 1526–29. doi:10.1007/s00268-012-1794-7.
    1. Ibis C, Albayrak D, Hatipoglu A R, Turan N. 2010. “The Amount of Comorbidities as a Single Parameter Has No Effect in Predicting the Outcome in Appendicitis Patients Older Than 60 Years.” Southern Medical Journal 103 (3): 202–06.
    1. Imbert P, Berger F, Diallo N S, Cellier C, Goumbala M, Ka A S, Petrognani R. 2003. “Maternal and Infant Prognosis of Emergency Cesarean Section: Prospective Study of the Principal Hospital in Dakar, Senegal.” [In French.]” Médecine tropicale: Revue du Corps de santé colonial 63 (4–5): 351–57.
    1. Jani K. 2005. “Prospective Randomized Study of Internal Oblique Aponeurotic Flap Repair for Tension-Free Reinforcement of the Posterior Inguinal Wall: A New Technique.” International Surgery 90 (3): 155–59.
    1. Juillard C J, Mock C, Goosen J, Joshipura M, Civil I. 2009. “Establishing the Evidence Base for Trauma Quality Improvement: A Collaborative WHO-IAtypesetterIC Review.” World Journal of Surgery 33 (5): 1075–86.
    1. Kaboro M, Djibril M A, Zoumendou E, Assouto P, Lokossou T, Chobli M. 2012. “L’anesthésie en urgence à la maternité de l’hôpital général de réfence national de N’Djaména (Tchad).” Médecine-afrique-noire 4 (59): 211–20.
    1. Kahabuka C, Kvale G, Moland K M, Hinderaker S G. 2011. “Why Caretakers Bypass Primary Health Care Facilities for Child Care: A Case from Rural Tanzania.” BMC Health Services Research 11: 315.
    1. Kambo I, Bedi N, Dhillon B S, Saxena N C. 2002. “A Critical Appraisal of Cesarean Section Rates at Teaching Hospitals in India.” International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 79 (2): 151–58.
    1. Kandasamy T, Merialdi M, Guidotti R J, Betran A P, Harris-Requejo J, Hakimi F, van Look P F, Kakar F. 2009. “Cesarean Delivery Surveillance System at a Maternity Hospital in Kabul, Afghanistan.” International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 104 (1): 14–17.
    1. Kargar S, Mirshamsi M H, Zare M, Arefanian S, Shadman Yazdi E, Aref A. 2011. “Laparoscopic versus Open Appendectomy; Which Method to Choose? A Prospective Randomized Comparison.” Acta Medica Iranica 49 (6): 352–56.
    1. Kasatpibal N, Nørgaard M, Sørensen H T, Schønheyder H C, Jamulitrat S, Chongsuvivatwong V. 2006. “Risk of Surgical Site Infection and Efficacy of Antibiotic Prophylaxis: A Cohort Study of Appendectomy Patients in Thailand.” BMC Infectious Diseases 6: 111.
    1. Kelly J, Kohls E, Poovan P, Schiffer R, Redito A, Winter H, MacArthur C. 2010. “The Role of a Maternity Waiting Area (MWA) in Reducing Maternal Mortality and Stillbirths in High-Risk Women in Rural Ethiopia.” BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 117 (11): 1377–83.
    1. Khalil J, Muqim R, Rafique M, Khan M. 2011. “Laparoscopic versus Open Appendectomy: A Comparison of Primary Outcome Measures.” Saudi Journal of Gastroenterology 17 (4): 236–40.
    1. Khan K I, Mahmood S, Akmal M, Waqas A. 2012. “Comparison of Rate of Surgical Wound Infection, Length of Hospital Stay and Patient Convenience in Complicated Appendicitis between Primary Closure and Delayed Primary Closure.” Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association 62 (6): 596–98.
    1. Khiria L S, Ardhnari R, Mohan N, Kumar P, Nambiar R. 2011. “Laparoscopic Appendicectomy for Complicated Appendicitis: Is It Safe and Justified? A Retrospective Analysis.” Surgical Laparoscopy, Endoscopy, and Percutaneous Techniques 21 (3): 142–45.
    1. Kilsztajn S, Carmo M S, Machado Jr L C, Lopes E S, Lima Z L. 2007. “Caesarean Sections and Maternal Mortality in São Paulo.” European Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 132 (1): 64–69.
    1. Kim Y M, Tappis H, Zainullah P, Ansara N, Evans C. others. 2012. “Quality of Caesarean Delivery Services and Documentation in First-Line Referral Facilities in Afghanistan: A Chart Review.” BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 12: 14. doi:10.1186/1471-2393-12-14.
    1. Kingsnorth A N, Oppong C, Akoh J, Stephenson B, Simmermacher R. 2006. “Operation Hernia to Ghana.” Hernia 10 (5): 376–79.
    1. Kong V Y, Bulajic B, Allorto N L, Handley J, Clarke D L. 2012. “Acute Appendicitis in a Developing Country.” World Journal of Surgery 36 (9): 2068–73.
    1. Kor-Anantakul O, Suwanrath C, Lim A, Chongsuviwatwon V. 2008. “Comparing Complications in Intended Vaginal and Caesarean Deliveries.” Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research 28 (1): 64–68.
    1. Kruk M E, Goldmann E, Galea S. 2009. “Borrowing and Selling to Pay for Health Care in Low- and Middle-Income Countries.” Health Affairs (Millwood) 28 (4): 1056–66.
    1. Kruk M E, Mbaruku G, McCord C W, Moran M, Rockers P C. others. 2009. “Bypassing Primary Care Facilities for Childbirth: A Population-Based Study in Rural Tanzania.” Health Policy and Planning 24 (4): 279–88.
    1. Kumar S, Jain S. 2004. “Treatment of Appendiceal Mass: Prospective, Randomized Clinical Trial.” Indian Journal of Gastroenterology 23 (5): 165–67.
    1. Kushner A L, Groen R S, Kingham T P. 2010. “Percentage of Cesarean Sections among Total Surgical Procedures in Sub-Saharan Africa: Possible Indicator of the Overall Adequacy of Surgical Care.” World Journal of Surgery 34 (9): 2007–08.
    1. Kwok A C, Funk L M, Baltaga R, Lipsitz S R, Merry A F. others. 2013. “Implementation of the World Health Organization Surgical Safety Checklist, Including Introduction of Pulse Oximetry, in a Resource-Limited Setting.” Annals of Surgery 257 (4): 633–39.
    1. Lagoo J, Wilkinson J, Thacker J, Deshmukh M, Khorgade S, Bang R. 2012. “Impact of Anemia on Surgical Outcomes: Innovative Interventions in Resource-Poor Settings.” World Journal of Surgery 36 (9): 2080–89.
    1. Lau H, Wong C, Goh L C, Patil N G, Lee F. 2002. “Prospective Randomized Trial of Pre-emptive Analgesics Following Ambulatory Inguinal Hernia Repair: Intravenous Ketorolac versus Diclofenac Suppository.” ANZ Journal of Surgery 72 (10): 704–07.
    1. Lebrun D G, Chackungal S, Chao T E, Knowlton L M, Linden A F. others. 2014. “Prioritizing Essential Surgery and Safe Anesthesia for the Post-2015 Development Agenda: Operative Capacities of 78 District Hospitals in 7 Low- and Middle-Income Countries.” Surgery 155 (3): 365–73.
    1. Lebrun D G, Dhar D, Sarkar M I, Imran T M, Kazi S N. others. 2013. “Measuring Global Surgical Disparities: A Survey of Surgical and Anesthesia Infrastructure in Bangladesh.” World Journal of Surgery 37 (1): 24–31.
    1. Leitch J. 2012. “Measuring Outcomes across a Nation: The Scottish Experience.” Presentation to the International Society for Quality in Healthcare International Conference, Geneva, October21–24, 2012. .
    1. Levy S M, Senter C E, Hawkins R B, Zhao J Y, Doody K. others. 2012. “Implementing a Surgical Checklist: More Than Checking a Box.” Surgery 152 (3): 331–36.
    1. Liu Z F, Yu J C, Hsieh H F, Lin H C. 2007. “Perforated Appendicitis: Urgency or Interval Surgery?” Zentralblatt für Chirurgie 132 (6): 539–41
    1. Lohsiriwat V, Sridermma W, Akaraviputh T, Boonnuch W, Chinsawangwatthanakol V. others. 2007. “Surgical Outcomes of Lichtenstein Tension-Free Hernioplasty for Acutely Incarcerated Inguinal Hernia.” Surgery Today 37 (3): 212–14.
    1. Lumbiganon P, Laopaiboon M, Gulmezoglu A M, Souza J P, Taneepanichskul S, Ruyan P, Attygalle D E, Shrestha N, Mori R, Nguyen D H, Hoang T B, Rathavy T, Chuyun K, Cheang K, Festin M, Udomprasertgul V, Germar M J, Yanqiu G, Roy M, Carroli G, Ba-Thike K, Filatova E, Villar J. 2010. “Method of Delivery and Pregnancy Outcomes in Asia: the WHO Global Survey on Maternal and Perinatal Health2007–08.” The Lancet 375 (9713): 490–99.
    1. Mabiala-Babela J R, Pandzou N, Koutaba E, Ganga-Zandzou S, Senga P. 2006. “Retrospective Study of Visceral Surgical Emergencies in Children at the University Hospital Center of Brazzaville (Congo).” [In French.] Médecine tropicale (Mars) 66 (2): 172–76.
    1. Mabula J B, Chalya P L. 2012. “Surgical Management of Inguinal Hernias at Bugando Medical Centre in Northwestern Tanzania: Our Experiences in a Resource-Limited Setting.” BMC Research Notes 5: 585.
    1. Macharia W M, Njeru E K, Muli-Musiime F, Nantulya V. 2009. “Severe Road Traffic Injuries in Kenya, Quality of Care and Access.” African Health Sciences 9 (2): 118–24.
    1. Malik A A, Yamamoto S S, Souares A, Malik Z, Sauerborn R. 2010. “Motivational Determinants among Physicians in Lahore, Pakistan.” BMC Health Services Research 10: 201.
    1. Malik A M, Talpur A H, Laghari A A. 2009. “Video-Assisted Laparoscopic Extracorporeal Appendectomy versus Open Appendectomy.” Journal of Laparoendoscopic and Advanced Surgical Techniques 19 (3): 355–59.
    1. Malik A M, Khan A, Talpur K A, Laghari A A. 2010. “Factors Influencing Morbidity and Mortality in Elderly Population Undergoing Inguinal Hernia Surgery.” Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association 60 (1): 45–47.
    1. Mbah N. 2007. “Morbidity and Mortality Associated with Inguinal Hernia in Northwestern Nigeria.” West African Journal of Medicine 26 (4): 288–92.
    1. McConkey S J. 2002. “Case Series of Acute Abdominal Surgery in Rural Sierra Leone.” World Journal of Surgery 26 (4): 509–13.
    1. McIntyre D, Thiede M, Birch S. 2009. “Access as a Policy-Relevant Concept in Low- and Middle-Income Countries.” Health Economics, Policy and Law 4 (Pt 2): 179–93.
    1. Mehrabi Bahar M, Jangjoo A, Amouzeshi A, Kavianifar K. 2010. “Wound Infection Incidence in Patients with Simple and Gangrenous or Perforated Appendicitis.” Archives of Iranian Medicine 13 (1): 13–16.
    1. Memon A A, Siddiqui F G, Abro A H, Agha A H, Lubna S, Memon A S. 2013. “Management of Recurrent Inguinal Hernia at a Tertiary Care Hospital of Southern Sindh, Pakistan.” World Journal of Surgery 37 (3): 510–15.
    1. Ming P C, Yan T Y, Tat L H. 2009. “Risk Factors of Postoperative Infections in Adults with Complicated Appendicitis.” Surgical Laparoscopy, Endoscopy, and Percutaneous Techniques 19 (3): 244–48.
    1. Ministère de la Santé Burkina Faso . 2013. “Annuaire statistique 2012.” . (Accessed March 5, 2014.)
    1. Mock C N, nii-Amon-Kotei D, Maier R V. 1997. “Low Utilization of Formal Medical Services by Injured Persons in a Developing Nation: Health Service Data Underestimate the Importance of Trauma.” Journal of Trauma 42 (3): 504–11.
    1. Mungadi I A. 2005. “Quality Surgical Care for Rural Dwellers: The Visiting Option.” Tropical Doctor 35 (3): 151–53.
    1. Neily J, Mills P D, Young-Xu Y, Carney B T, West P. others. 2010. “Association between Implementation of a Medical Team Training Program and Surgical Mortality.” Journal of the American Medical Association 304 (15): 1693–700.
    1. Ngowe Ngowe M, Bissou J, Mahop R, Atangana V C, Eyenga C, Pisoh-Tangnym A, Sosso M. 2008. “Current Clinical Features of Acute Appendicitis in Adults in Yaounde, Cameroon.” [In French.] Bulletin de la Société de pathologie exotique 101 (5): 398–99.
    1. Nguyen H, Ivers R, Jan S, Martiniuk A, Pham C. 2013. “Catastrophic Household Costs Due to Injury in Vietnam.” Injury 44 (5): 684–90.
    1. Nilsson H, Stylianidis G, Haapamaki M, Nilsson E, Nordin P. 2007. “Mortality after Groin Hernia Surgery.” Annals of Surgery 245 (4): 656–60.
    1. Nolan T, Berwick D M. 2006. “All-or-None Measurement Raises the Bar on Performance.” Journal of the American Medical Association 295 (10): 1168–70.
    1. Noordzij P G, Poldermans D, Schouten O, Bax J J, Schreiner F A. others. 2010. “Postoperative Mortality in the Netherlands: A Population-Based Analysis of Surgery-Specific Risk in Adults.” Anesthesiology 112 (5): 1105–15.
    1. Nwameme A U, Phillips J F, Adongo P B. 2013. “Compliance with Emergency Obstetric Care Referrals among Pregnant Women in an Urban Informal Settlement of Accra, Ghana.” Maternal and Child Health Journal. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s10995-013-1380-0.
    1. Obalum D C, Eyesan S U, Ogo C N, Atoyebi O A. 2008. “Day-Case Surgery for Inguinal Hernia: A Multi-Specialist Private Hospital Experience in Nigeria.” Nigerian Quarterly Journal of Hospital Medicine 18 (1): 42–44.
    1. Ohene-Yeboah M. 2003. “Strangulated External Hernias in Kumasi.” West African Journal of Medicine 22 (4): 310–13.
    1. Ohene-Yeboah M, Togbe B. 2006. “An Audit of Appendicitis and Appendicectomy in Kumasi, Ghana.” West African Journal of Medicine 25 (2): 138–43.
    1. Okafor P I, Orakwe J C, Chianakwana G U. 2003. “Management of Appendiceal Masses in a Peripheral Hospital in Nigeria: Review of Thirty Cases.” World Journal of Surgery 27 (7): 800–803.
    1. Okafor U V, Ezegwui H U, Ekwazi K. 2009. “Trends of Different Forms of Anaesthesia for Caesarean Section in South-Eastern Nigeria.” Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research 29 (5): 392–95.
    1. Okafor U V, Okezie O. 2005. “Maternal and Fetal Outcome of Anaesthesia for Caesarean Delivery in Preeclampsia/Eclampsia in Enugu, Nigeria: A Retrospective Observational Study.” International Journal of Obstetric Anesthesia 14 (2): 108–13.
    1. Okezie A O, Oyefara B, Chigbu C O. 2007. “A 4-year Analysis of Caesarean Delivery in a Nigerian Teaching Hospital: One-Quarter of Babies Born Surgically.” Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 27 (5): 470–74.
    1. Oladapo O T, Lamina M A, Sule-Odu A O. 2007. “Maternal Morbidity and Mortality Associated with Elective Caesarean Delivery at a University Hospital in Nigeria.” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 47 (2): 110–14.
    1. Osifo O D, Irowa O O. 2008. “Indirect Inguinal Hernia in Nigerian Older Children and Young Adults: Is Herniorrhaphy Necessary?” Hernia 12 (6): 635–39.
    1. Osifo O D, Ogiemwonyi S O. 2009. “Appendicitis in Children: An Increasing Health Scourge in a Developing Country.” Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences 25 (3): 490–95.
    1. Ozumba B C, Anya S E. 2002. “Maternal Deaths Associated with Cesarean Section in Enugu, Nigeria.” International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 76 (3): 307–9.
    1. Parkhurst J O, Rahman S A, Ssengooba F. 2006. “Overcoming Access Barriers for Facility-Based Delivery in Low-Income Settings: Insights from Bangladesh and Uganda.” Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition 24 (4): 438–45.
    1. Paudel R K, Jain B K, Rani S, Gupta S K, Niraula S R. 2003. “Acute Appendicitis: A Quality Assurance Study.” Tropical Gastroenterology 24 (2): 83–86.
    1. Pearse R M, Moreno R P, Bauer P, Pelosi P, Metnitz P. others. 2012. “Mortality after Surgery in Europe: A 7 Day Cohort Study.” The Lancet 380 (9847): 1059–65.
    1. Peralta Vargas C E, López A, Díaz Gil J R, Rodríguez Montoya R M, Angulo Guzmán W R. 2004. “Surgical Wound Infection in Appendectomized Patients in the Surgical Service of Hospital III Essalud-Chimbote.” [In Spanish.] Revista de gastroenterología del Perú 24 (1): 43–49.
    1. Petroze R T, Mehtsun W, Nzayisenga A, Ntakiyiruta G, Sawyer R G. others. 2012. “Ratio of Cesarean Sections to Total Procedures as a Marker of District Hospital Trauma Capacity.” World Journal of Surgery 36 (9): 2074–79.
    1. Petroze R T, Nzayisenga A, Rusanganwa V, Ntakiyiruta G, Calland J F. 2012. “Comprehensive National Analysis of Emergency and Essential Surgical Capacity in Rwanda.” British Journal of Surgery 99 (3): 436–43.
    1. Pokharel N, Sapkota P, Kc B, Rimal S, Thapa S, Shakya R. 2011. “Acute appendicitis in Elderly Patients: A Challenge for Surgeons.” Nepal Medical College Journal 13 (4): 285–88.
    1. Pradhan G B, Shrestha D, Shrestha S, Bhattachan C L. 2011. “Inguinal Herniotomy in Children: A One Year Survey at Nepal Medical College Teaching Hospital.” Nepal Medical College Journal 13 (4): 301–2.
    1. Ramyil V M, Iya D, Ogbonna B C, Dakum K N. 2000. “Safety of Daycare Hernia Repair in Jos, Nigeria.” East African Medical Journal 77 (6): 326–28.
    1. Rahlenbeck S, Hakizimana C. 2002. “Deliveries at a District Hospital in Rwanda, 1997–2000.” International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 76(3): 325–28.
    1. Rogers A D, Hampton M I, Bunting M, Atherstone A K. 2008. “Audit of Appendicectomies at Frere Hospital, Eastern Cape.” South African Journal of Surgery 46 (3): 74–77.
    1. Ronsmans C, Graham W J. 2006. “Maternal Mortality: Who, When, Where, and Why.” The Lancet 368 (9542): 1189–200.
    1. Rutgers R A, van Eygen L. 2008. “Mortality Related to Caesarean Section in Rural Matebeleland North Province, Zimbabwe.” Central African Journal of Medicine 54 (5–8): 24–27.
    1. Saha N, Saha D K, Rahman M A, Islam M K, Aziz M A. 2010. “Comparison of Post Operative Morbidity between Laparoscopic and Open Appendectomy in Children.” Mymensingh Medical Journal: MMJ 19 (3): 348–52.
    1. Salahuddin O, Malik M A, Sajid M A, Azhar M, Dilawar O, Salahuddin A. 2012. “Acute Appendicitis in the Elderly; Pakistan Ordnance Factories Hospital, Wah Cantt Experience.” Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association 62 (9): 946–49.
    1. Samaali I, Ben Osman S, Bedoui R, Bouasker I, Chaker Y. others. 2012. “Spinal Anesthesia versus General Anesthesia for Inguinal Hernia Repair: Propensity Score Analysis.” [In French.] Tunisie Médicale 90 (10): 686–91.
    1. Sanders D L, Kingsnorth A N. 2007. “Operation Hernia: Humanitarian Hernia Repairs in Ghana.” Hernia 11 (5): 389–91.
    1. Scarlett M, Crawford-Sykes A, Thomas M, Duncan N D. 2007. “Paediatric Day Surgery: Revisiting the University Hospital of the West Indies Experience.” West Indian Medical Journal 56 (4): 320–25.
    1. Schuitemaker N, van Roosmalen J, Dekker G, van Dongen P, van Geijn H, Gravenhorst J B. 1997. “Maternal Mortality after Cesarean Section in the Netherlands.” Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 76 (4): 332–34.
    1. Seal S L, Kamilya G, Mukherji J, Bhattacharyya S K, De A, Hazra A. 2010. “Outcome in Second- versus First-Stage Cesarean Delivery in a Teaching Institution in Eastern India.” American Journal of Perinatology 27 (6): 507–12.
    1. Sekirime W K, Lule J C. 2008. “Maternal Morbidity Following Emergency Caesarean Section in Asymptomatic HIV-1 Infected Patients in Mulago Hospital Kampala, Uganda.” Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research 28 (7): 703–9.
    1. Seljeskog L, Sundby J, Chimango J. 2006. “Factors Influencing Women’s Choice of Place of Delivery in Rural Malawi: An Explorative Study.” African Journal of Reproductive Health 10 (3): 66–75.
    1. Semel M E, Lipsitz S R, Funk L M, Bader A M, Weiser T G. others. 2012. “Rates and Patterns of Death after Surgery in the United States, 1996 and 2006.” Surgery 151 (2): 171–82.
    1. Séréngbé B G, Gaudeuille A, Soumouk A, Gody J C, Yassibanda S, Mandaba J L. 2002. “Acute Abdominal Pain in Children at the Pediatric Hospital in Bangui (Central African Republic). Epidemiological, Clinical, Paraclinical, Therapeutic and Evolutive Aspects.” [In French.] Archives des pédiatrie 9 (2): 136–41.
    1. Shaikh A R, Rao A M, Muneer A. 2012. “Inguinal Mesh Hernioplasty under Local Anaesthesia.” Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association 62 (6): 566–69.
    1. Shaikh A R, Sangrasi A K, Shaikh G A. 2009. “Clinical Outcomes of Laparoscopic versus Open Appendectomy.” Journal of the Society of Laparoendoscopic Surgeons 13 (4): 574–80.
    1. Shi Y, Su Z, Li L, Liu H, Jing C. 2010. “Comparing the Effects of Bassini versus Tension-Free Hernioplasty: Three Years’ Follow-Up.” Frontiers of Medicine in China 4 (4): 463–68.
    1. Shillcutt S D, Clarke M G, Kingsnorth A N. 2010. “Cost-Effectiveness of Groin Hernia Surgery in the Western Region of Ghana.” Archives of Surgery 145 (10): 954–61.
    1. Shillcutt S D, Sanders D L, Teresa Butrón-Vila M, Kingsnorth A N. 2013. “Cost-Effectiveness of Inguinal Hernia Surgery in Northwestern Ecuador.” World Journal of Surgery 37 (1): 32–41.
    1. Silber J H, Williams S V, Krakauer H, Schwartz J S. 1992. “Hospital and Patient Characteristics Associated with Death after Surgery: A Study of Adverse Occurrence and Failure to Rescue.” Medical Care 30 (7): 615–29.
    1. Sorbye I K, Vangen S, Oneko O, Sundby J, Bergsjo P. 2011. “Caesarean Section among Referred and Self-Referred Birthing Women: A Cohort Study from a Tertiary Hospital, Northeastern Tanzania.” BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 11 (55).
    1. Stulberg J J, Delaney C P, Neuhauser D V, Aron D C, Fu P, Koroukian S M. 2010. “Adherence to Surgical Care Improvement Project Measures and the Association with Postoperative Infections.” Journal of the American Medical Association 303 (24): 2479–85.
    1. Taqvi S R, Akhtar J, Batool T, Tabassum R, Mirza F. 2006. “Complications of Inguinal Hernia Surgery in Children.” Journal of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Pakistan 16 (8): 532–35.
    1. Terzi A, Yildiz F, Vural M, Coban S, Cece H, Kaya M. 2010. “A Case Series of 46 Appendectomies during Pregnancy.” Wien Klin Wochenschr 122 (23–24): 686–690.
    1. Thaddeus S, Maine D. 1994. “Too Far to Walk: Maternal Mortality in Context.” Social Science and Medicine 38 (8): 1091–110.
    1. Tshibangu K C, de M A, Jongh D J, de Villiers J J, du Toit S, Shah M. 2002. “Incidence and Outcome of Caesarean Section in the Private Sector-3-Year Experience at Pretoria Gynaecological Hospital.” South African Medical Journal 92 (12): 956–59.
    1. Turaga K K, Garg N, Coeling M, Smith K, Amirlak B. others. 2006. “Inguinal Hernia Repair in a Developing Country.” Hernia 10 (4): 294–98.
    1. Urbach D R, Govindarajan A, Saskin R, Wilton A S, Baxter N N. 2014. “Introduction of Surgical Safety Checklists in Ontario, Canada.” New England Journal of Medicine 370 (11): 1029–38.
    1. Usang U E, Sowande O A, Adejuyigbe O, Bakare T I, Ademuyiwa O A. 2008. “The Role of Preoperative Antibiotics in the Prevention of Wound Infection after Day Case Surgery for Inguinal Hernia in Children in Ile Ife, Nigeria.” Pediatric Surgery International 24 (10): 1181–85.
    1. Utpal D. 2005. “Laparoscopic versus Open Appendectomy in West Bengal, India.” Chinese Journal of Digestive Diseases 6 (4): 165–69.
    1. van Klei W A, Hoff R G, van Aarnhem E E, Simmermacher R K, Regli L P. others. 2012. “Effects of the Introduction of the WHO Surgical Safety Checklist on In-Hospital Mortality: A Cohort Study.” Annals of Surgery 255 (1): 44–9.
    1. Van Minh H, Kim N T, Phuong P, Saksena C D, James Xu K. 2013. “Financial Burden of Household Out-of Pocket Health Expenditure in Viet Nam: Findings from the National Living Standard Survey 2002–2010.” Social Science and Medicine 96 258–63.
    1. Villar J, Carroli G, Zavaleta N, Donner A, Wojdyla D, Faundes A, Velazco A, Bataglia V, Langer A, Narvaez A, Valladares E, Shah A, Campodonico L, Romero M, Reynoso S, de Padua K S, Giordano D, Kublickas M, Acosta A. 2007. “Maternal and Neonatal Individual Risks and Benefits Associated with Caesarean Delivery: Multicentre Prospective Study.” BMJ 335 (7628): 1025.
    1. Walk R M, Glaser J, Marmon L M, Donahue T F, Bastien J, Safford S D. 2012. “Continuing Promise 2009-Assessment of a Recent Pediatric Surgical Humanitarian Mission.” Journal of Pediatric Surgery 47 (4): 652–57.
    1. Walker I A, Wilson I H. 2008. “Anaesthesia in Developing Countries: A Risk for Patients.” The Lancet 371 (9617): 968–69.
    1. Weiser T G. 2010. “Health Policy: All-or-None Compliance is the Best Determinant of Quality of Care.” Nature Reviews Urology 7 (10): 541–42.
    1. Weiser T G, Haynes A B, Dziekan G, Berry W R, Lipsitz S R. others. 2010. “Effect of a 19-Item Surgical Safety Checklist during Urgent Operations in a Global Patient Population.” Annals of Surgery 251 (5): 976–80.
    1. Weiser T G, Haynes A B, Lashoher A, Dziekan G, Boorman D J. others. 2010. “Perspectives in Quality: Designing the WHO Surgical Safety Checklist.” International Journal for Quality in Health Care 22 (5): 365–70.
    1. Weiser T G, Makary M A, Haynes A B, Dziekan G, Berry W R. others. 2009. “Standardised Metrics for Global Surgical Surveillance.” The Lancet 374 (9695): 1113–17.
    1. Weiser T G, Regenbogen S E, Thompson K D, Haynes A B, Lipsitz S R. others. 2008. “An Estimation of the Global Volume of Surgery: A Modelling Strategy Based on Available Data.” The Lancet 372 (9633): 139–44.
    1. Weiser T G, Semel M E, Simon A E, Lipsitz S R, Haynes A B. others. 2011. “In-Hospital Death Following Inpatient Surgical Procedures in the United States, 1996–2006.” World Journal of Surgery 35 (9): 1950–56.
    1. WFSA (World Federation of Societies of Anesthesiologists) . 2008. “2008 International Standards for Safe Practice of Anaesthesia.” WFSA, London. .
    1. WHO (World Health Organization) . 2000. “Millennium Development Goals.” WHO, Geneva.
    1. WHO (World Health Organization) . 2005. Make Every Mother and Child Count: The World Health Report 2005. Geneva: WHO.
    1. WHO (World Health Organization) . 2007. World Health Statistics 2007. Geneva: WHO.
    1. WHO (World Health Organization) . 2009a. “Guidelines for Trauma Quality Improvement Programmes.” WHO, Geneva.
    1. WHO (World Health Organization) . 2009b. Implementation Manual: Surgical Safety Checklist, edited by Gawande A A, Weiser T G. first edition. Geneva: WHO.
    1. WHO (World Health Organization) . 2009c. “Integrated Management of Essential and Emergency Surgical Care (IMEESC) Tool Kit.” Geneva: WHO. .
    1. WHO (World Health Organization) . 2009d. WHO Guidelines for Safe Surgery: Safe Surgery Saves Lives, edited by Gawande A A, Weiser T G. Geneva: WHO. .
    1. WHO (World Health Organization) . 2010. “Tool for Situational Analysis to Assess Emergency and Essential Surgical Care.” Geneva: WHO. .
    1. Willmore W S, Hill A G. 2001. “Acute Appendicitis in a Kenyan Rural Hospital.” East African Medical Journal 78 (7): 355–57.
    1. Wu H S, Lai H W, Kuo S J, Lee Y T, Chen D R. others. 2011. “Competitive Edge of Laparoscopic Appendectomy versus Open Appendectomy: A Subgroup Comparison Analysis.” Journal of Laparoendoscopic and Advanced Surgical Techniques, Part A 21 (3): 197–202.
    1. Wu S C, Wang C C, Yong C C. 2008. “Quadrapod Mesh for Posterior Wall Reconstruction in Adult Inguinal Hernias.” ANZ Journal of Surgery 78 (3): 182–84.
    1. Wu S C, Wang Y C, Fu C Y, Chen R J, Huang H C. others. 2011. “Laparoscopic Appendectomy Provides Better Outcomes Than Open Appendectomy in Elderly Patients.” American Surgeon 77 (4): 466–70.
    1. Xu K, Evans D B, Carrin G, Aguilar-Rivera A M, Musgrove P. others. 2007. “Protecting Households from Catastrophic Health Spending.” Health Affairs (Millwood) 26 (4): 972–83.
    1. Yaffee A Q, Whiteside L K, Oteng R A, Carter P M, Donkor P. others. 2012. “Bypassing Proximal Health Care Facilities for Acute Care: A Survey of Patients in a Ghanaian Accident and Emergency Centre.” Tropical Medicine and International Health 17 (6): 775–81.
    1. Yeung Y P, Cheng M S, Ho K L, Yip A W. 2002. “Day-Case Inguinal Herniotomy in Chinese Children: Retrospective Study.” Hong Kong Medical Journal 8 (4): 245–48.
    1. Zhou X L. 2013. “Comparison of the Posterior Approach and Anterior Approach for a Kugel Repair of Treatment of Inguinal Hernias.” Surgery Today 43 (4): 403–7.
    1. Zoguereh D D, Lemaître X, Ikoli J F, Delmont J, Chamlian A. others. 2001. “Acute Appendicitis at the National University Hospital in Bangui, Central African Republic: Epidemiologic, Clinical, Paraclinical and Therapeutic Aspects.” [In French.] Santé 11 (2): 117–25.

Source: PubMed

3
Prenumerera