Effects of high intake of cod or salmon on gut microbiota profile, faecal output and serum concentrations of lipids and bile acids in overweight adults: a randomised clinical trial

Marianne Bratlie, Ingrid V Hagen, Anita Helland, Friedemann Erchinger, Øivind Midttun, Per Magne Ueland, Grethe Rosenlund, Harald Sveier, Gunnar Mellgren, Trygve Hausken, Oddrun Anita Gudbrandsen, Marianne Bratlie, Ingrid V Hagen, Anita Helland, Friedemann Erchinger, Øivind Midttun, Per Magne Ueland, Grethe Rosenlund, Harald Sveier, Gunnar Mellgren, Trygve Hausken, Oddrun Anita Gudbrandsen

Abstract

Purpose: To explore whether high intake of cod or salmon would affect gut microbiota profile, faecal output and serum concentrations of lipids and bile acids.

Methods: Seventy-six adults with overweight/obesity with no reported gastrointestinal disease were randomly assigned to consume 750 g/week of either cod or salmon, or to avoid fish intake (Control group) for 8 weeks. Fifteen participants from each group were randomly selected for 72 h faeces collection at baseline and end point for gut microbiota profile analyses using 54 bacterial DNA probes. Food intake was registered, and fasting serum and morning urine were collected at baseline and end point.

Results: Sixty-five participants were included in serum and urine analyses, and gut microbiota profile was analysed for 33 participants. Principal component analysis of gut microbiota showed an almost complete separation of the Salmon group from the Control group, with lower counts for bacteria in the Bacteroidetes phylum and the Clostridiales order of the Firmicutes phyla, and higher counts for bacteria in the Selenomonadales order of the Firmicutes phylum. The Cod group showed greater similarity to the Salmon group than to the Control group. Intake of fibres, proteins, fats and carbohydrates, faecal daily mass and output of fat, cholesterol and total bile acids, and serum concentrations of cholesterol, triacylglycerols, non-esterified fatty acids and total bile acids were not altered in the experimental groups.

Conclusion: A high intake of cod or salmon fillet modulated gut microbiota but did not affect faecal output or serum concentrations of lipids and total bile acids.

Clinical trial registration: This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02350595.

Keywords: Cod; Faeces; Gut microbiota; Lipids; Salmon.

Conflict of interest statement

GR and HS are employed in Skretting Aquaculture Research Centre AS and Lerøy Seafood Group ASA, respectively. Skretting Aquaculture Research Centre AS is a global leader in providing innovative and sustainable nutritional solutions for the aquaculture industry. Lerøy Seafood Group ASA is the leading exporter of seafood from Norway and the world’s second largest producer of Atlantic salmon. Skretting Aquaculture Research Centre AS and Lerøy Seafood Group ASA were not involved in on-site data collection. The other authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Study overview of participants. Participants not complying with the protocol were not included in the statistical analyses. Non-compliance was defined as not following the protocol in regard to fish intake (omitting more than 3 fish dinners in the fish-eating groups), other dietary changes or use of prescription medicine not compatible with the inclusion criteria, or changes in physical activity. *Of these, two participants (one man and one woman) in the Cod group were selected for faeces collection. †Of these, one participant (a woman) in the Control group was selected for faeces collection. ‡Of these, one participant (a woman) selected for faeces collection in the Cod group was excluded from analysis
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Scores (a) and loadings (b) from the first two principal components (PC1 and PC2) obtained from principal component analysis using centred and standardised gut bacteria counts in faeces at baseline for N = 9 subjects in the Cod group, N = 13 subjects in the Salmon group, and N = 11 subjects in the Control group. The score plot (a) shows the experimental groups (blue diamond; Cod group, red squares; Salmon group, green triangles; Control group). The loading plot (b) show bacterial signals by phylum (open black circles; Actinobacteria, red squares, Bacteroidetes, orange circles; Firmicutes, blue diamond; Proteobacteria, green triangle; Verrucomicrobia)
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Scores (a) and loadings (b) from the first two principal components (PC1 and PC2) obtained from principal component analysis using centred and standardised gut bacteria counts in faeces at end point for N = 9 subjects in the Cod group, N = 13 subjects in the Salmon group, and N = 11 subjects in the Control group. The score plot (a) shows the experimental groups (blue diamond; Cod group, red squares; Salmon group encircled by a red ellipse, green triangles; Control group encircled by a green ellipse). The loading plot (b) show bacterial signals by phylum (open black circles; Actinobacteria, red squares, Bacteroidetes, orange circles; Firmicutes, blue diamond; Proteobacteria, green triangle; Verrucomicrobia)

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