Network analysis reveals distinct clinical syndromes underlying acute mountain sickness

Abstract

Acute mountain sickness (AMS) is a common problem among visitors at high altitude, and may progress to life-threatening pulmonary and cerebral oedema in a minority of cases. International consensus defines AMS as a constellation of subjective, non-specific symptoms. Specifically, headache, sleep disturbance, fatigue and dizziness are given equal diagnostic weighting. Different pathophysiological mechanisms are now thought to underlie headache and sleep disturbance during acute exposure to high altitude. Hence, these symptoms may not belong together as a single syndrome. Using a novel visual analogue scale (VAS), we sought to undertake a systematic exploration of the symptomatology of AMS using an unbiased, data-driven approach originally designed for analysis of gene expression. Symptom scores were collected from 292 subjects during 1110 subject-days at altitudes between 3650 m and 5200 m on Apex expeditions to Bolivia and Kilimanjaro. Three distinct patterns of symptoms were consistently identified. Although fatigue is a ubiquitous finding, sleep disturbance and headache are each commonly reported without the other. The commonest pattern of symptoms was sleep disturbance and fatigue, with little or no headache. In subjects reporting severe headache, 40% did not report sleep disturbance. Sleep disturbance correlates poorly with other symptoms of AMS (Mean Spearman correlation 0.25). These results challenge the accepted paradigm that AMS is a single disease process and describe at least two distinct syndromes following acute ascent to high altitude. This approach to analysing symptom patterns has potential utility in other clinical syndromes.

Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00664001.

Conflict of interest statement

Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Figures

Figure 1. Identification of VAS questionnaires exhibiting similar symptom profiles using Biolayout Express 3D.

Each node (coloured sphere) represents a VAS questionnaire. Nodes are connected by weighted lines, which represent correlations between similar symptom profiles. Nodes are connected with each other if the Pearson correlation coefficient between them exceeds 0.95. The MCL clustering algorithm (inflation = 1.4) sub-divided this network into three discrete clusters of VAS questionnaires, each of which shared similar features. Figures adjacent to the clusters represent the median VAS scores for each question in the VAS questionnaire. The green cluster (cluster 1) contains 407 nodes and corresponds to subjects who slept poorly, and were fatigued but had little headache. The brown cluster (cluster 2) contains 127 nodes and corresponds to subjects who slept poorly and did have headache. The purple cluster (cluster 3) contains 43 nodes and corresponds to subjects who had little sleep disturbance but had headache. The remaining nodes do not correlate sufficiently with each other to form a significant cluster.

Figure 2. Correlations between different LLS symptoms.

The correlations between symptoms included in the Lake Louise Score was explored across the whole population of responses (n = 1045) using Biolayout 3D (minimum Pearson correlation cut–off r = 0.4). Headache, fatigue, nausea and dizziness all correlate with each other, whereas sleep is an outlier and correlates only with fatigue at this threshold.

Figure 3. Frequency distribution of LLS and VAS scores (n = 1045).

(A) Distribution of LLS. A positive LLS, indicating AMS, is a score of 3 or greater in the presence of headache; (B) Distribution of Lake Louise Scores following square-root transformation; (C) Distribution of total VAS scores (minimum 0 mm; maximum 700 mm); (D) Distribution of total VAS scores following square-root transformation of data. LLS: Lake Louise Score; VAS: visual analogue scale; AMS: acute mountain sickness.