Measuring enjoyment of physical activity in older adults: invariance of the physical activity enjoyment scale (paces) across groups and time

Sean P Mullen, Erin A Olson, Siobhan M Phillips, Amanda N Szabo, Thomas R Wójcicki, Emily L Mailey, Neha P Gothe, Jason T Fanning, Arthur F Kramer, Edward McAuley, Sean P Mullen, Erin A Olson, Siobhan M Phillips, Amanda N Szabo, Thomas R Wójcicki, Emily L Mailey, Neha P Gothe, Jason T Fanning, Arthur F Kramer, Edward McAuley

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to validate the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) in a sample of older adults. Participants within two different exercise groups were assessed at two time points, 6 months apart. Group and longitudinal invariance was established for a novel, 8-item version of the PACES. The shortened, psychometrically sound measure provides researchers and practitioners an expedited and reliable instrument for assessing the enjoyment of physical activity.

Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00438347.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Model Parameters Involved in Testing Invariance of 8-item PACES.

References

    1. Dacey M, Baltzell A, Zaichkowsky L. Older adults'intrinsic and extrinsic motivation toward physical activity. American Journal of Health Behavior. 2008;32:570–582.
    1. McArthur L, Raedeke T. Race and sex differences in college student physical activity correlates. American Journal of Health Behavior. 2009;33:80–90.
    1. Williams D, Papandonatos G, Napolitano M, Lewis B, Whiteley J. Perceived enjoyment moderates the efficacy of an individually tailored physical activity intervention. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2006;28:300–309.
    1. Ruby MB, Dunn EW, Perrino A, Gillis R, Viel S. The invisible benefits of exercise. Health Psychology. 2011;30:67–74.
    1. Dunton GF, Vaughan E. Anticipated affective consequences of physical activity adoption and maintenance. Health Psychology. 2008;27:703–710.
    1. Wang X. The role of anticipated negative emotions and past behavior in individuals' physical activity intentions and behaviors. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2010. pp. 1–6.
    1. Baltes P, Reese H, Nesselroade J. Life-span developmental psychology: Introduction to research methods. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; 1988.
    1. Bandura A. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall, Inc; 1986.
    1. Bandura A. Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual review of psychology. 2001;52:1–26. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.1.
    1. Bandura A. In: Perspectives on Motivation: Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Dienstbier RA, editor. Vol. 38. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press; 1991. Self-regulation of motivation through anticipatory and self-reactive mechanisms; pp. 69–164.
    1. Rothman AJ. Toward a theory-based analysis of behavioral maintenance. Health Psychology. 2000;19:64–69.
    1. Bryan A, Hutchison KE, Seals DR, Allen DL. A transdisciplinary model integrating genetic, physiological, and psychological correlates of voluntary exercise. Health Psychology. 2007;26:30–39.
    1. Focht B, Knapp D, Gavin T, Raedeke T, Hickner R. Affective and self-efficacy responses to acute aerobic exercise in sedentary older and younger adults. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity. 2007;15:123–138.
    1. Kendzierski D, DeCarlo K. Physical activity enjoyment scale: Two validation studies. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 1991;13:50–64.
    1. Crocker P, Bouffard M, Gessaroli M. Measuring enjoyment in youth sport settings: A confirmatory factor analysis of the physical activity enjoyment scale. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology. 1995;17:200–205.
    1. Motl R, Dishman R, Saunders R, Dowda M, Felton G, Pate R. Measuring enjoyment of physical activity in adolescent girls. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2001;21:110–117. doi: 10.1016/S0749-3797(01)00326-9.
    1. Moore J, Yin Z, Hanes J, Duda J, Gutin B, Barbeau P. Measuring enjoyment of physical activity in children: validation of the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 2009;21:116–129. doi: 10.1080/10413200802575700.
    1. Raedeke T. The relationship between enjoyment and affective responses to exercise. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 2007;19:105–115. doi: 10.1080/10413200601113638.
    1. Kendzierski D, Morganstein M. Test, revision, and cross-validation of the Physical Activity Self-Definition Model. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology. 2009;31:484–504.
    1. Mullen SP, Whaley DE. Age, gender, & fitness club membership: Factors related to involvement and adherence. International Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology. 2010;8:24–35. doi: 10.1080/1612197X.2010.9671931.
    1. Rice C, Pasupathi M. Reflecting on self-relevant experiences: Adult age differences. Developmental Psychology. 2010;46:479–490.
    1. Heesch K, Masse L, Dunn A. Using Rasch modeling to re-evaluate three scales related to physical activity: enjoyment, perceived benefits and perceived barriers. Health Education Research. 2006;21:i58–i72. doi: 10.1093/her/cyl054.
    1. Rhodes R, Fiala B, Conner M. A review and meta-analysis of affective judgments and physical activity in adult populations. Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 2009;38:180–204. doi: 10.1007/s12160-009-9147-y.
    1. Chogahara M. A multidimensional scale for assessing positive and negative social influences on physical activity in older adults. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. 1999;54:S356–S367.
    1. McAuley E, Jerome GJ, Elavsky S, Marquez DX, Ramsey SN. Predicting long-term maintenance of physical activity in older adults. Preventive Medicine. 2003;37:110–118. doi: 10.1016/S0091-7435(03)00089-6.
    1. Resnick B, Orwig D, Magaziner J, Wynne C. The effect of social support on exercise behavior in older adults. Clinical Nursing Research. 2002;11:52–70.
    1. Carron AV, Hausenblas HA, Mack D. Social influence and exercise: A meta-analysis. Essential Readings in Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2007. pp. 372–377.
    1. Erickson KI, Voss MW, Prakash RS, Basak C, Szabo A, Chaddock L, Kim JS, Heo S, Alves H, White SM. Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2011;108:3017. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1015950108.
    1. Voss MW, Erickson KI, Prakash RS, Chaddock L, Malkowski E, Alves H, Kim JS, Morris KS, White SM, Wójcicki TR. Functional connectivity: A source of variance in the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and cognition? Neuropsychologia. 2010;48:1394–1406. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.01.005.
    1. McAuley E, Mailey EL, Mullen SP, Szabo AN, Wójcicki TR, White SM, Gothe N, Olson EA, Kramer AF. Growth trajectories of exercise self-efficacy in older adults: Influence of measures and initial status. Health Psychology. 2010;30:75–83.
    1. Gothe NP, Mullen SP, Wójcicki TR, Mailey EL, White SM, Olson EA, Szabo AN, Kramer AF, McAuley E. Trajectories of change in self-esteem in older adults: exercise intervention effects. Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 2011;34:298–306. doi: 10.1007/s10865-010-9312-6.
    1. Cutrona CE, Russell DW. The provisions of social relationships and adaptation to stress. Advances in Personal Relationships. 1987;1:37–67.
    1. Tiikkainen P, Heikkinen RL, Leskinen E. The structure and stability of perceived togetherness in elderly people during a 5-year follow-up. Journal of Applied Gerontology. 2004;23:279–293. doi: 10.1177/0733464804267582.
    1. Washburn RA, Smith KW, Jette AM, Janney CA. The Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly (PASE): Development and evaluation. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology. 1993;46:153–162. doi: 10.1016/0895-4356(93)90053-4.
    1. Washburn RA, McAuley E, Katula J, Mihalko SL, Boileau RA. The Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly (PASE): Evidence for validity. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology. 1999;52:643–651. doi: 10.1016/S0895-4356(99)00049-9.
    1. Muthén L, Muthén B. Mplus User's Guide [Computer software and manual]. 5. Los Angeles: Muthén & Muthén; 1998.
    1. Hu L, Bentler PM. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling. 1999;6:1–55. doi: 10.1080/10705519909540118.
    1. Marsh HW, Hau KT, Grayson D. In: Psychometrics A Festschrift to Roderick P McDonald. Maydeu-Olivares A, McArdle J, editor. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; 2005. Goodness of fit in structural equation models.
    1. Fan X, Sivo SA. Sensitivity of fit indices to model misspecification and model types. Multivariate Behavioral Research. 2007;42:509–529. doi: 10.1080/00273170701382864.
    1. Marsh HW, Hau KT, Wen Z. In search of golden rules: Comment on hypothesis-testing approaches to setting cutoff values for fit indexes and dangers in overgeneralizing Hu and Bentler. Structural Equation Modeling. 2004;11:320–341. doi: 10.1207/s15328007sem1103_2.
    1. Chen F, Curran PJ, Bollen KA, Kirby J, Paxton P. An empirical evaluation of the use of fixed cutoff points in RMSEA test statistic in structural equation models. Sociological Methods & Research. 2008;36:462–494.
    1. Satorra A, Bentler PM. A scaled difference chi-square test statistic for moment structure analysis. Psychometrika. 2001;66:507–514. doi: 10.1007/BF02296192.
    1. Cheung GW, Rensvold RB. Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal. 2002;9:233–255. doi: 10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5.
    1. Chen FF. Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal. 2007;14:464–504. doi: 10.1080/10705510701301834.
    1. Enders CK. Applied missing data analysis. New York: The Guilford Press; 2010.
    1. Marsh HW, Scalas LF, Nagengast B. Longitudinal tests of competing factor structures for the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: Traits, ephemeral artifacts, and stable response styles. Psychological assessment. 2010;22:366–381.
    1. Motl RW, Conroy DE, Horan PM. The Social Physique Anxiety Scale: An example of the potential consequence of negatively worded items in factorial validity studies. Journal of Applied Measurement. 2000;1:327–345.
    1. Marsh HW, Bailey M. Confirmatory factor analyses of multitrait-multimethod data: A comparison of alternative models. Applied Psychological Measurement. 1991;15:47–70. doi: 10.1177/014662169101500106.
    1. Robinson MD, Clore GL. Belief and feeling: Evidence for an accessibility model of emotional self-report. Psychological Bulletin. 2002;128:934–960.
    1. Robinson MD, Clore GL. Episodic and semantic knowledge in emotional self-report: Evidence for two judgment processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2002;83:198–215.
    1. Ryff CD. Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1989;57:1069–1081.
    1. Mather M, Carstensen LL. Aging and motivated cognition: The positivity effect in attention and memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2005;9:496–502. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2005.08.005.
    1. McDonald RP. Test theory: A unified treatment. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc; 1999.
    1. Hardy S, Grogan S. Preventing disability through exercise. Journal of Health Psychology. 2009;14:1036–1046. doi: 10.1177/1359105309342298.
    1. Kwan B, Bryan A. Affective response to exercise as a component of exercise motivation: Attitudes, norms, self-efficacy, and temporal stability of intentions. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2010;11:71–79. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.05.010.
    1. Kwan B, Bryan A. In-task and post-task affective response to exercise: Translating exercise intentions into behaviour. British Journal of Health Psychology. 2010;15:115–131.
    1. Ekkekakis P, Backhouse SH, Gray C, Lind E. Walking is popular among adults but is it pleasant? A framework for clarifying the link between walking and affect as illustrated in two studies. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2008;9:246–264. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.04.004.
    1. Colcombe SJ, Kramer AF, Erickson KI, Scalf P, McAuley E, Cohen NJ, Webb A, Jerome GJ, Marquez DX, Elavsky S. Cardiovascular fitness, cortical plasticity, and aging. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2004;101:3316. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0400266101.
    1. Lang FR, Carstensen LL. Close emotional relationships in late life: Further support for proactive aging in the social domain. Psychology and Aging. 1994;9:315–324.
    1. Carstensen LL, Fung HH, Charles ST. Socioemotional selectivity theory and the regulation of emotion in the second half of life. Motivation and Emotion. 2003;27:103–123. doi: 10.1023/A:1024569803230.
    1. Beauchamp MR, Carron AV, McCutcheon S, Harper O. Older adults' preferences for exercising alone versus in groups: Considering contextual congruence. Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 2007;33:200–206. doi: 10.1007/BF02879901.
    1. Cohen-Mansfield J, Marx MS, Biddison JR, Guralnik JM. Socio-environmental exercise preferences among older adults. Preventive Medicine. 2004;38:804–811. doi: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.01.007.

Source: PubMed

Sponsorer och medarbetare

Medicinska tillstånd

Läkemedelsinterventioner

3
Prenumerera