Gauging Outcomes of Locomotion Formats (GOLF)

Assessment of Energy Expenditure of Elite Amateur Golfers Using a Buggy or Walking Over 2 Rounds of 18 Holes Using an ActiHeart® Monitor

Investigators intend to use Actiheart® Monitors with a cohort of 16-30 elite amateur golfers over 18 (male and female) from Tournament Golf to clarify golfer's energy expenditure across a round of 18 holes in each condition at a championship course in Portugal.

In a randomised repeated measures design, participants will either walk or use a buggy for 18 holes. All sets of clubs will be placed in the buggy at all times. Baseline measures (e.g., weight, height, performance metrics, age will also be recorded). Each group will be assigned a helper/ coach to ensure only the correct participants are using the buggies. The buggy will be driven by a member of staff to ensure the buggy is moving at a controlled speed and only travelling to the necessary places on the golf course. Rounds will be timed from start to finish. Elements will be controlled throughout the week by the nutritionist on site. This includes practice sessions (e.g., driving range, chipping), gym sessions and the competitors will be playing under tournament conditions. Global positioning system (GPS) and step count will also be monitored.

Rate of perceived exertion (RPE) will also be measured using the modified Borg Scale . This will be collected pre round, during every 6 holes (holes 6, 12 and 18) and post round. Trackman (Trackman 4) machinery will also be set up every 6 holes (6, 12, 18), to measure performance variables (e.g., driving distance/ accuracy) at various points during the round to determine if there is a possible difference in performance when using a different method of transport. Players will not be told what these devices are measuring to ensure it doesn't affect mindset. Upgame will also be used to measure performance statistics and individuals scoring to determine if there is any correlation between this and energy expended. Force plates (Smart2move 1D) will also be used to measure ground reaction forces pre and post round by a strength and conditioning coach.

The principal investigator will transport the Actiheart ® monitors to Portugal. Prior to each round of 18 holes, participants will be fitted with an Actiheart® accelerometer (Actiheart®; dimensions: 39.7 × 30.3 ×9.25 mm; weight: 10.5 g) and chest heart rate monitor (Camn tech, Fenstanton, UK). Participant HR and activity levels will be recorded using 15 second epochs to estimate AEE for the duration of each activity and round of competitive golf. The data will be downloaded from the device immediately following each round and activity for analysis. The lead investigator will collect the data and then it will be analysed to establish the activity energy expenditure during a round of golf when walking or using a buggy.

Cognitive function measurements will also be assessed by a simplified version of VAS- Fatigue. We will use two visual rating scales (none to worst imaginable) pre and post round to measure cognitive fatigue and physical fatigue. A Stroop test will also be used to assess selective attention, inhibition and cognitive flexibility pre and post round. Players post round will be asked a 10-15 open ended questionnaire to assess their feelings towards using a buggy. Questions will include, 'did you think using the buggy today enhanced your performance?' and vice versa. The NASA- TLX. This measures mental demand, physical demand, temporal demand, performance, effort and frustration.

Differential RPE (d-RPE) will be asked of players post 18 holes which will allow us to quantify a perceived load for different subscales such as breathing, limb, cognitive/ technical and overall. Core temperature will be assessed using telemetry pills. Participants will swallow the pill at least one hour before we start getting a measure to ensure it has been digested. A reader will be used post round and held next to the participants stomach that will download all the relevant information. Data will be collected every 10 minutes for 60 minutes. To maximise the study's internal validity, all participants will be amateur golfers currently registered as students as the Tournament Golf College. The data will be collected and stored onto a secure LJMU drive, this will be pseudo- anonymised.

It is hoped that the result of this study will clarify energy expenditure of elite amateur male and female golfers whilst using a buggy or walking throughout a tournament week. This will allow players of all standards to implement practical nutrition strategies for fuelling and recovery and will confirm whether using a buggy may have positive implications for performance and health.

Study Overview

• Status: Completed
• Conditions: Locomotor Activity
• Intervention / Treatment: Device: locomotion formats

• Study Type: Interventional
• Enrollment (Actual): 16
• Phase: Not Applicable

Contacts and Locations

Study Locations

• Portugal
  • Alcantarilha, Portugal
    • Tournament Golf College

Participation Criteria

Eligibility Criteria

• Ages Eligible for Study: Adult; Older Adult
• Accepts Healthy Volunteers: No

Description

Inclusion Criteria:

• Male and Female Elite Amateurs
• 18-50 years of age
• Handicaps 5 and below
• Members of Tournament Golf College (TGC)
• Physically active
• Healthy
• Injury Free
• Body weight >36.5kg

Exclusion Criteria:

• Gender/ Sex: Other
• Age: <18->50
• Injured/ Not competing
• Handicap >5
• Body weight <36.5kg
• Obstructive gastro-disease
• History of gastrointestinal surgery
• Current use of an implanted medical device
• Scheduled for an MRI scan during the study period

Study Plan

How is the study designed?

Design Details

• Primary Purpose: Basic Science
• Allocation: Randomized
• Interventional Model: Crossover Assignment
• Masking: None (Open Label)

Number of Arms

2

Arms and Interventions

Participant Group / Arm	Intervention / Treatment
Active Comparator: Walking	Device: locomotion formats; two different types of popular locomotion methods in golf (i.e., walking 18 holes and using a buggy)
Active Comparator: Buggy	Device: locomotion formats; two different types of popular locomotion methods in golf (i.e., walking 18 holes and using a buggy)

What is the study measuring?

Primary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Energy Expenditure	Measurement of activity energy expenditure using actiheart monitors using a buggy and walking	during day 1 and day 2 of the 18 holes of golf.

Secondary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Assessment of muscle force using force platforms		Day 1 and day 2 will include 18 holes of golf (one round). Testing will be done before and after these rounds.
Rate of perceived exertion		Day 1 and day 2 will include 18 holes of golf (one round). Testing will be done before and after these rounds and after every 6 holes.
driver swing speed using trackman		Day 1 and day 2 will include 18 holes of golf (one round). Testing will be done on the first hole of each round and every 6 holes.
Stroop colour word test		Day 1 and day 2 will include 18 holes of golf (one round). Testing will be done before and after these rounds.
NASA-TLX	The NASA Task Load Index scale will measure cognitive metrics (performance, temporal demand, mental demand, effort, frustration, physical demand). These are based on a scale of 1 (very low) to 20 (very high). The higher the score, the more challenging they found the round.	Day 1 and day 2 will include 18 holes of golf (one round). Testing will be done after these rounds.
Core temperature using telemetry pills		Day 1 and day 2 will include 18 holes of golf (one round). Testing will be done before and after these rounds and after every 6 holes in these rounds.

Collaborators and Investigators

• Sponsor: Liverpool John Moores University

Publications and helpful links

General Publications

• Borg GA. Psychophysical bases of perceived exertion. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1982;14(5):377-81.

Study record dates

Study Major Dates

• Study Start (Actual): December 3, 2024
• Primary Completion (Actual): March 31, 2025
• Study Completion (Actual): March 31, 2025

Study Registration Dates

• First Submitted: March 17, 2025
• First Submitted That Met QC Criteria: March 25, 2025
• First Posted (Actual): April 1, 2025

Study Record Updates

• Last Update Posted (Estimated): September 30, 2025
• Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria: September 29, 2025
• Last Verified: September 1, 2025

More Information

Terms related to this study

• Keywords: performance; energy expenditure; golf; actiheart; golf cart
• Other Study ID Numbers: 24/SPS/075

Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)

• Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?: NO

Drug and device information, study documents

• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product: No
• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product: No
• product manufactured in and exported from the U.S.: No