Solar drinking water disinfection (SODIS) to reduce childhood diarrhoea in rural Bolivia: a cluster-randomized, controlled trial

Abstract

Background: Solar drinking water disinfection (SODIS) is a low-cost, point-of-use water purification method that has been disseminated globally. Laboratory studies suggest that SODIS is highly efficacious in inactivating waterborne pathogens. Previous field studies provided limited evidence for its effectiveness in reducing diarrhoea.

Methods and findings: We conducted a cluster-randomized controlled trial in 22 rural communities in Bolivia to evaluate the effect of SODIS in reducing diarrhoea among children under the age of 5 y. A local nongovernmental organisation conducted a standardised interactive SODIS-promotion campaign in 11 communities targeting households, communities, and primary schools. Mothers completed a daily child health diary for 1 y. Within the intervention arm 225 households (376 children) were trained to expose water-filled polyethyleneteraphtalate bottles to sunlight. Eleven communities (200 households, 349 children) served as a control. We recorded 166,971 person-days of observation during the trial representing 79.9% and 78.9% of the total possible person-days of child observation in intervention and control arms, respectively. Mean compliance with SODIS was 32.1%. The reported incidence rate of gastrointestinal illness in children in the intervention arm was 3.6 compared to 4.3 episodes/year at risk in the control arm. The relative rate of diarrhoea adjusted for intracluster correlation was 0.81 (95% confidence interval 0.59-1.12). The median length of diarrhoea was 3 d in both groups.

Conclusions: Despite an extensive SODIS promotion campaign we found only moderate compliance with the intervention and no strong evidence for a substantive reduction in diarrhoea among children. These results suggest that there is a need for better evidence of how the well-established laboratory efficacy of this home-based water treatment method translates into field effectiveness under various cultural settings and intervention intensities. Further global promotion of SODIS for general use should be undertaken with care until such evidence is available.

Trial registration: www.ClinicalTrials.govNCT00731497 Please see later in the article for Editors' Summary.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Figures

Figure 1. Community-randomized trial flow diagram on point-of-use SODIS in Totora District, Bolivia.

Figure 2. Weekly prevalence of child diarrheal illness.

Weekly points are derived from daily prevalence data of each participating child.

Figure 3. Weekly observed proportion of households using SODIS as point-of-use drinking water purification method.

Open triangles, self-reported SODIS use at the beginning (after 3 mo of initial SODIS promotion) and at the end of follow-up; filled dots, SODIS use observed by project staff living in the community (see Methods for definition); open circles, SODIS bottles observed on the roof and/or in the kitchen; stars, SODIS-bottles on the roof; crosses, SODIS-bottles in the kitchen.

Figure 4. Compliance of using SODIS and child diarrhoea in rural Bolivia.

Compliance of SODIS use is estimated as the proportion of weeks a family has been classified as a SODIS user by community-based project staff. Dots, number of episodes per child-year at risk. Small random noise was added to the dots to avoid over plotting. Only children with at least 110 d under observation are included.