Discrepancy between the Atwater factor predicted and empirically measured energy values of almonds in human diets

Janet A Novotny, Sarah K Gebauer, David J Baer, Janet A Novotny, Sarah K Gebauer, David J Baer

Abstract

Background: The energy content of foods is primarily determined by the Atwater factors, which may not be accurate for certain food groups. Nuts are a food group for which substantial evidence suggests that the Atwater factors may be poorly predictive.

Objective: A study was conducted to determine the energy value of almonds in the human diet and to compare the measured energy value with the value calculated from the Atwater factors.

Design: Eighteen healthy adults consumed a controlled diet or an almond-containing diet for 18 d. Three treatments were administered to subjects in a crossover design, and diets contained 1 of 3 almond doses: 0, 42, or 84 g/d. During the final 9 d of the treatment period, volunteers collected all urine and feces, and samples of diets, feces, and urine were analyzed for macronutrient and energy contents. The metabolizable energy content of the almonds was determined.

Results: The energy content of almonds in the human diet was found to be 4.6 ± 0.8 kcal/g, which is equivalent to 129 kcal/28-g serving. This is significantly less than the energy density of 6.0-6.1 kcal/g as determined by the Atwater factors, which is equivalent to an energy content of 168-170 kcal/serving. The Atwater factors, when applied to almonds, resulted in a 32% overestimation of their measured energy content.

Conclusion: This study provides evidence for the inaccuracies of the Atwater factors for certain applications and provides a rigorous method for determining empirically the energy value of individual foods within the context of a mixed diet. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01007188.

Figures

FIGURE 1.
FIGURE 1.
Schematic of the crossover study design. All volunteers (n = 18) completed 3 treatment periods. Each treatment period lasted 18 d, and the initial 9 d were a period of adaptation to the diet followed by a 9-d collection period for feces and urine. Treatments consisted of 0, 42, or 84 g almonds/d, which were consumed as part of a controlled diet. To provide data on intraindividual variability, 3 volunteers were randomly assigned to treatment sequences that included repetition of the 0-g/d dose, and 3 volunteers were randomly assigned to treatment sequences that included repetition of the 84-g/d dose. Twelve volunteers received all 3 doses.

References

    1. Atwater WO, Bryant AP. The availability and fuel value of food materials. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1900 (Agriculture Experiment Station 12th Annual Report 73-110.)
    1. Merrill AL, Watt BK. Energy value of foods: basis and derivation. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1973. (Agriculture Handbook No. 74.)
    1. Jaffa ME. Further investigations among fruitarians at the California Agricultural Experiment Station, 1901-1902. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1903. (USDA Bull 132.)
    1. Levine AS, Silvis SE. Absorption of whole peanuts, peanut oil, and peanut butter. N Engl J Med 1980;303:917–8
    1. Traoret CJ, Lokko P, Cruz AC, Oliveira CG, Costa NM, Bressan J, Alfenas RC, Mattes RD. Peanut digestion and energy balance. Int J Obes (Lond) 2008;32:322–8
    1. Berry SE, Tydeman EA, Lewis HB, Phalora R, Rosborough J, Picout DR, Ellis PR. Manipulation of lipid bioaccessibility of almond seeds influences postprandial lipemia in healthy human subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;88:922–9
    1. FAO Food energy—methods of analysis and conversion factors. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2003
    1. Jenab M, Sabate J, Slimani N, Ferrari P, Mazuir M, Casagrande C, Deharveng G, Tjonneland A, Olsen A, Overvad K, et al. Consumption and portion sizes of tree nuts, peanuts and seeds in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohorts from 10 European countries. Br J Nutr 2006;96(suppl 2):S12–23
    1. Shahidi R, Alasalvar C. Tree nuts: composition, phytochemicals, and health effects: an overview. In: Alasalvar C, Shahidi F, eds. Tree nuts: composition, phytochemicals, and health effects. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2009.
    1. Baer DJ, Gebauer SK, Novotny JA. Measured energy value of pistachios in the human diet. Br J Nutr 2012;107:120–5
    1. Food labeling, 21 CFR, chapter 1, subchapter B, part 101 (2011)
    1. Cassady BA, Hollis JH, Fulford AD, Considine RV, Mattes RD. Mastication of almonds: effects of lipid bioaccessibility, appetite, and hormone response. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89:794–800
    1. Ellis PR, Kendall CW, Ren Y, Parker C, Pacy JF, Waldron KW, Jenkins DJ. Role of cell walls in the bioaccessibility of lipids in almond seeds. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80:604–13
    1. USDA, Agricultural Research Service. USDA National nutrient database for standard reference, release 24. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page. Available from: (cited 2011)
    1. Ollberding NJ, Wolf RL, Contento I. Food label use and its relation to dietary intake among U.S. adults. J Am Diet Assoc 2010;110:1233–7
    1. Freedman MR, Connors RA. Point-of-purchase nutrition information influences food-purchasing behaviors of college students: a pilot study. J Am Diet Assoc 2010;110:1222–6
    1. Ellsworth JL, Kushi LH, Folsom AR. Frequent nut intake and risk of death from coronary heart disease and all causes in postmenopausal women: the Iowa Women's Health Study. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2001;11:372–7
    1. Albert CM, Gaziano JM, Willett WC, Manson JE. Nut consumption and decreased risk of sudden cardiac death in the Physicians’ Health Study. Arch Intern Med 2002;162:1382–7
    1. Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Rimm EB, Colditz GA, Rosner BA, Speizer FE, Hennekens CH, Willett WC. Frequent nut consumption and risk of coronary heart disease in women: prospective cohort study. BMJ 1998;317:1341–5
    1. Fraser GE, Sabate J, Beeson WL, Strahan TM. A possible protective effect of nut consumption on risk of coronary heart disease. The Adventist Health Study. Arch Intern Med 1992;152:1416–24
    1. Sabaté J. Nut consumption and body weight. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;78(suppl):647S–50S
    1. Mozaffarian D, Hao T, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Hu FB. Changes in diet and lifestyle and long-term weight gain in women and men. N Engl J Med 2011;364:2392–404
    1. Alper CM, Mattes RD. Effects of chronic peanut consumption on energy balance and hedonics. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2002;26:1129–37
    1. Hollis J, Mattes R. Effect of chronic consumption of almonds on body weight in healthy humans. Br J Nutr 2007;98:651–6
    1. Wien MA, Sabate JM, Ikle DN, Cole SE, Kandeel FR. Almonds vs complex carbohydrates in a weight reduction program. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2003;27:1365–72
    1. Kruskall LJ, Campbell WW, Evans WJ. The Atwater energy equivalents overestimate metabolizable energy intake in older humans: results from a 96-day strictly controlled feeding study. J Nutr 2003;133:2581–4
    1. Zou ML, Moughan PJ, Awati A, Livesey G. Accuracy of the Atwater factors and related food energy conversion factors with low-fat, high-fiber diets when energy intake is reduced spontaneously. Am J Clin Nutr 2007;86:1649–56
    1. Brown J, Livesey G, Roe M, Faulks R, Poppitt S, Wilkinson J, Elia M. Metabolizable energy of high non-starch polysaccharide-maintenance and weight-reducing diets in men: experimental appraisal of assessment systems. J Nutr 1998;128:986–95
    1. Southgate DA, Durnin JV. Calorie conversion factors. An experimental reassessment of the factors used in the calculation of the energy value of human diets. Br J Nutr 1970;24:517–35
    1. Livesey G. Energy values of unavailable carbohydrate and diets: an inquiry and analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 1990;51:617–37

Source: PubMed

Sponzoři a spolupracovníci

Zdravotní podmínky

Drogové intervence

3
Předplatit