Role of PET imaging for biochemical recurrence following primary treatment for prostate cancer

Samuel J Galgano, Roberto Valentin, Jonathan McConathy, Samuel J Galgano, Roberto Valentin, Jonathan McConathy

Abstract

Prostate cancer is one of the most common cancers in men worldwide, and primary prostate cancer is typically treated with surgery, radiation, androgen deprivation, or a combination of these therapeutic modalities. Despite technical advances, approximately 30% of men will experience biochemical recurrent within 10 years of definitive treatment. Upon detection of a rise in serum prostate specific antigen (PSA), there is great need to accurately stage these patients to help guide further therapy. As a result, there are considerable efforts underway to establish the role of positron emission tomography (PET) in the diagnostic algorithm of biochemically recurrent prostate cancer. This manuscript provides an overview of PET tracers used for the detection and localization of prostate cancer in the setting of biochemical recurrence with a focus on PET tracers that are currently being used in clinical practice in the United States.

Keywords: Biochemical recurrence; PET/magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); positron emission tomography (PET)/computed tomography (CT); prostate cancer.

Conflict of interest statement

Conflicts of Interest: Drs. Galgano and McConathy receive research support from Blue Earth Diagnostics. Dr. Valentin has no conflicts of interest to declare.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Sodium [18F]fluoride-PET/CT images from a patient with prostate cancer status post external beam radiation therapy, androgen-deprivation therapy, and brachytherapy presenting with elevated PSA and biochemical recurrence. The maximum intensity projection image (MIP, panel A) demonstrates numerous foci of increased tracer activity in several ribs and the bony pelvis. The fused PET/CT (B) and CT only (C) images demonstrate a right sacral metastasis (arrow) with a sclerotic correlate.
Figure 2
Figure 2
[11C]choline-PET/CT images from a patient with prostate cancer status post brachytherapy, now with elevated PSA. Attenuation corrected PET (A) and fused PET/CT (B) images demonstrate focal tracer activity within the prostate gland (arrow) suspicious for recurrent tumor within the gland. Non-attenuation corrected PET images (C) demonstrate that the activity is not due to attenuation correction artifact from adjacent brachytherapy seeds. Whole body MIP images (D) demonstrates no additional distant metastases. Patient subsequently underwent prostatectomy which confirmed recurrent prostate cancer.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Fused [18F]fluciclovine-PET/CT images (A and B) and whole body MIP image (C) from a patient with prostate cancer initially treated with radiation therapy and androgen-deprivation therapy reaching a PSA nadir of 0.7 ng/mL. The patient’s PSA continued to rise and measured 5.0 ng/mL at time of imaging which demonstrated local recurrence within the prostate gland (filled arrow) and invasion of the bilateral seminal vesicles (open arrows).
Figure 4
Figure 4
[18F]fluciclovine-PET/MRI images from a patient with prostate cancer status post radical prostatectomy with subsequent biochemical recurrence and a PSA of 8.8 ng/mL. The T2 single shot fast spin echo (SSFSE) MR images demonstrate a large right internal iliac lymph node (A, open arrow) with markedly increased tracer activity on the fused PET/MR image (B) and a normal-sized left paraaortic lymph node (C, filled arrow) with increased activity on the fused PET/MR image (D), suspicious for an additional nodal metastasis. Whole body MIP image (E) demonstrates no additional distant metastases.
Figure 5
Figure 5
[11C]acetate-PET/CT in a patient with elevated PSA of 0.38 ng/mL status post prostatectomy. CT images (A) and fused PET/CT images (B) demonstrate focal soft tissue with increased tracer activity in the prostatectomy bed (arrow). Whole body MIP image (C) demonstrates no distant metastases. Patient was subsequently referred to radiation oncology for salvage pelvic radiotherapy.
Figure 6
Figure 6
[68Ga]PSMA-11-PET/CT in a patient with prostate cancer initially treated with radiation therapy in 2013 with subsequent biochemical recurrence treated with salvage pelvic radiation therapy. Patient PSA continued to be elevated to 7.7 ng/mL. CT image (A), fused [68Ga]PSMA-11-PET/CT (B), [68Ga]PSMA-11-PET (C), and whole body MIP (D) images demonstrate increased tracer activity in several enlarged left internal mammary lymph nodes (arrow). (Images courtesy of Tom Hope, MD, University of California San Francisco).
Figure 7
Figure 7
Whole body MIP (A), MR (B), [68Ga]RM2-PET (C), and fused [68Ga]RM2-PET/MRI images (D) in a 73-year-old patient with biochemical recurrence status post radiation therapy (PSA =1.32 ng/mL) demonstrate activity in the right seminal vesicle, suspicious for local recurrence (arrow). (Images courtesy of Andrei Iagaru, MD, Stanford University).
Figure 8
Figure 8
[18F]FDHT-PET images of a patient with biochemically recurrent metastatic prostate cancer (PSA =62 ng/mL) before (A) and after (B) initiation of flutamide demonstrate osseous and lymph node metastases (arrows) and subsequent treatment response. (Images courtesy of Farrokh Dehdashti, MD, Washington University in St. Louis).

References

    1. Global Burden of Disease Cancer Collaboration , Fitzmaurice C, Allen C, et al. Global, Regional, and National Cancer Incidence, Mortality, Years of Life Lost, Years Lived With Disability, and Disability-Adjusted Life-years for 32 Cancer Groups, 1990 to 2015: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. JAMA Oncol 2017;3:524-48. 10.1001/jamaoncol.2016.5688
    1. National Comprehensive Cancer Network. NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Prostate Cancer Version 2.2018. June 3, 2018; Available online:
    1. Roehl KA, Han M, Ramos CG, et al. Cancer progression and survival rates following anatomical radical retropubic prostatectomy in 3,478 consecutive patients: long-term results. J Urol 2004;172:910-4. 10.1097/
    1. Freedland SJ, Humphreys EB, Mangold LA, et al. Risk of prostate cancer-specific mortality following biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy. JAMA 2005;294:433-9. 10.1001/jama.294.4.433
    1. Kupelian PA, Mahadevan A, Reddy CA, et al. Use of different definitions of biochemical failure after external beam radiotherapy changes conclusions about relative treatment efficacy for localized prostate cancer. Urology 2006;68:593-8. 10.1016/j.urology.2006.03.075
    1. Cookson MS, Aus G, Burnett AL, et al. Variation in the definition of biochemical recurrence in patients treated for localized prostate cancer: the American Urological Association Prostate Guidelines for Localized Prostate Cancer Update Panel report and recommendations for a standard in the reporting of surgical outcomes. J Urol 2007;177:540-5. 10.1016/j.juro.2006.10.097
    1. Roach M, 3rd, Hanks G, Thames H, Jr, et al. Defining biochemical failure following radiotherapy with or without hormonal therapy in men with clinically localized prostate cancer: recommendations of the RTOG-ASTRO Phoenix Consensus Conference. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2006;65:965-74. 10.1016/j.ijrobp.2006.04.029
    1. Hövels AM, Heesakkers RA, Adang EM, et al. The diagnostic accuracy of CT and MRI in the staging of pelvic lymph nodes in patients with prostate cancer: a meta-analysis. Clin Radiol 2008;63:387-95. 10.1016/j.crad.2007.05.022
    1. Jager GJ, Barentsz JO, Oosterhof GO, et al. Pelvic adenopathy in prostatic and urinary bladder carcinoma: MR imaging with a three-dimensional TI-weighted magnetization-prepared-rapid gradient-echo sequence. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1996;167:1503-7. 10.2214/ajr.167.6.8956585
    1. Davis GL. Sensitivity of frozen section examination of pelvic lymph nodes for metastatic prostate carcinoma. Cancer 1995;76:661-8. 10.1002/1097-0142(19950815)76:4<661::AID-CNCR2820760419>;2-S
    1. Fortuin A, Rooij Md, Zamecnik P, et al. Molecular and functional imaging for detection of lymph node metastases in prostate cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2013;14:13842-75. 10.3390/ijms140713842
    1. Grubmüller B, Baltzer P, D'Andrea D, et al. (68)Ga-PSMA 11 ligand PET imaging in patients with biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy - diagnostic performance and impact on therapeutic decision-making. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2018;45:235-42. 10.1007/s00259-017-3858-2
    1. Sanli Y, Kuyumcu S, Sanli O, et al. Relationships between serum PSA levels, Gleason scores and results of 68Ga-PSMAPET/CT in patients with recurrent prostate cancer. Ann Nucl Med 2017;31:709-17. 10.1007/s12149-017-1207-y
    1. Almeida FD, Yen CK, Scholz MC, et al. Performance characteristics and relationship of PSA value/kinetics on carbon-11 acetate PET/CT imaging in biochemical relapse of prostate cancer. Am J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2017;7:1-11.
    1. Evangelista L, Cimitan M, Hodolič M, et al. The ability of 18F-choline PET/CT to identify local recurrence of prostate cancer. Abdom Imaging 2015;40:3230-7. 10.1007/s00261-015-0547-0
    1. Kairemo K, Rasulova N, Partanen K, et al. Preliminary clinical experience of trans-1-Amino-3-(18)F-fluorocyclobutanecarboxylic Acid (anti-(18)F-FACBC) PET/CT imaging in prostate cancer patients. Biomed Res Int 2014;2014:305182. 10.1155/2014/305182
    1. Nanni C, Zanoni L, Pultrone C, et al. (18)F-FACBC (anti1-amino-3-(18)F-fluorocyclobutane-1-carboxylic acid) versus (11)C-choline PET/CT in prostate cancer relapse: results of a prospective trial. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2016;43:1601-10. 10.1007/s00259-016-3329-1
    1. Schwenck J, Rempp H, Reischl G, et al. Comparison of (68)Ga-labelled PSMA-11 and (11)C-choline in the detection of prostate cancer metastases by PET/CT. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2017;44:92-101. 10.1007/s00259-016-3490-6
    1. Calais J, Fendler WP, Herrmann K, et al. Comparison of (68)Ga-PSMA-11 and (18)F-Fluciclovine PET/CT in a Case Series of 10 Patients with Prostate Cancer Recurrence. J Nucl Med 2018;59:789-94. 10.2967/jnumed.117.203257
    1. Effert P, Beniers AJ, Tamimi Y, et al. Expression of glucose transporter 1 (Glut-1) in cell lines and clinical specimens from human prostate adenocarcinoma. Anticancer Res 2004;24:3057-63.
    1. Jadvar H. Is There Use for FDG-PET in Prostate Cancer? Semin Nucl Med 2016;46:502-6. 10.1053/j.semnuclmed.2016.07.004
    1. Shreve PD, Grossman HB, Gross MD, et al. Metastatic prostate cancer: initial findings of PET with 2-deoxy-2-[F-18]fluoro-D-glucose. Radiology 1996;199:751-6. 10.1148/radiology.199.3.8638000
    1. Jadvar H. Imaging evaluation of prostate cancer with 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose PET/CT: utility and limitations. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2013;40 Suppl 1:S5-10. 10.1007/s00259-013-2361-7
    1. Segall G, Delbeke D, Stabin MG, et al. SNM practice guideline for sodium 18F-fluoride PET/CT bone scans 1.0. J Nucl Med 2010;51:1813-20. Erratum in: J Nucl Med 2011;52:495. 10.2967/jnumed.110.082263
    1. Even-Sapir E, Metser U, Mishani E, et al. The detection of bone metastases in patients with high-risk prostate cancer: 99mTc-MDP Planar bone scintigraphy, single- and multi-field-of-view SPECT, 18F-fluoride PET, and 18F-fluoride PET/CT. J Nucl Med 2006;47:287-97.
    1. Apolo AB, Lindenberg L, Shih JH, et al. Prospective Study Evaluating Na18F PET/CT in Predicting Clinical Outcomes and Survival in Advanced Prostate Cancer. J Nucl Med 2016;57:886-92. 10.2967/jnumed.115.166512
    1. Jadvar H, Desai B, Ji L, et al. Prospective evaluation of 18F-NaF and 18F-FDG PET/CT in detection of occult metastatic disease in biochemical recurrence of prostate cancer. Clin Nucl Med 2012;37:637-43. 10.1097/RLU.0b013e318252d829
    1. Hillner BE, Siegel BA, Hanna L, et al. Impact of 18F-fluoride PET in patients with known prostate cancer: initial results from the National Oncologic PET Registry. J Nucl Med 2014;55:574-81. 10.2967/jnumed.113.130005
    1. Zeisel SH. Dietary choline: biochemistry, physiology, and pharmacology. Annu Rev Nutr 1981;1:95-121. 10.1146/annurev.nu.01.070181.000523
    1. Ackerstaff E, Glunde K, Bhujwalla ZM. Choline phospholipid metabolism: a target in cancer cells? J Cell Biochem 2003;90:525-33. 10.1002/jcb.10659
    1. von Eyben FE, Kairemo K. Meta-analysis of (11)C-choline and (18)F-choline PET/CT for management of patients with prostate cancer. Nucl Med Commun 2014;35:221-30. 10.1097/MNM.0000000000000040
    1. Fanti S, Minozzi S, Castellucci P, et al. PET/CT with (11)C-choline for evaluation of prostate cancer patients with biochemical recurrence: meta-analysis and critical review of available data. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2016;43:55-69. 10.1007/s00259-015-3202-7
    1. Evangelista L, Zattoni F, Guttilla A, et al. Choline PET or PET/CT and biochemical relapse of prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Nucl Med 2013;38:305-14. 10.1097/RLU.0b013e3182867f3c
    1. Umbehr MH, Müntener M, Hany T, et al. The role of 11C-choline and 18F-fluorocholine positron emission tomography (PET) and PET/CT in prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Urol 2013;64:106-17. 10.1016/j.eururo.2013.04.019
    1. Shen G, Deng H, Hu S, et al. Comparison of choline-PET/CT, MRI, SPECT, and bone scintigraphy in the diagnosis of bone metastases in patients with prostate cancer: a meta-analysis. Skeletal Radiol 2014;43:1503-13. 10.1007/s00256-014-1903-9
    1. Fortuin AS, Deserno WM, Meijer HJ, et al. Value of PET/CT and MR lymphography in treatment of prostate cancer patients with lymph node metastases. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2012;84:712-8. 10.1016/j.ijrobp.2011.12.093
    1. Kitajima K, Murphy RC, Nathan MA, et al. Detection of recurrent prostate cancer after radical prostatectomy: comparison of 11C-choline PET/CT with pelvic multiparametric MR imaging with endorectal coil. J Nucl Med 2014;55:223-32. 10.2967/jnumed.113.123018
    1. Schuster DM, Nanni C, Fanti S. Evaluation of Prostate Cancer with Radiolabeled Amino Acid Analogs. J Nucl Med 2016;57:61S-6S. 10.2967/jnumed.115.170209
    1. Segawa A, Nagamori S, Kanai Y, et al. L-type amino acid transporter 1 expression is highly correlated with Gleason score in prostate cancer. Mol Clin Oncol 2013;1:274-80. 10.3892/mco.2012.54
    1. Oka S, Okudaira H, Ono M, et al. Differences in transport mechanisms of trans-1-amino-3-[18F]fluorocyclobutanecarboxylic acid in inflammation, prostate cancer, and glioma cells: comparison with L-[methyl-11C]methionine and 2-deoxy-2-[18F]fluoro-D-glucose. Mol Imaging Biol 2014;16:322-9. 10.1007/s11307-013-0693-0
    1. McParland BJ, Wall A, Johansson S, et al. The clinical safety, biodistribution and internal radiation dosimetry of [18F]fluciclovine in healthy adult volunteers. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2013;40:1256-64. 10.1007/s00259-013-2403-1
    1. Nye JA, Schuster DM, Yu W, et al. Biodistribution and radiation dosimetry of the synthetic nonmetabolized amino acid analogue anti-18F-FACBC in humans. J Nucl Med 2007;48:1017-20. Erratum in: J Nucl Med 2016;57:804. 10.2967/jnumed.107.040097
    1. Turkbey B, Mena E, Shih J, et al. Localized prostate cancer detection with 18F FACBC PET/CT: comparison with MR imaging and histopathologic analysis. Radiology 2014;270:849-56. 10.1148/radiol.13130240
    1. Elschot M, Selnæs KM, Sandsmark E, et al. A PET/MRI study towards finding the optimal [(18)F]Fluciclovine PET protocol for detection and characterisation of primary prostate cancer. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2017;44:695-703. 10.1007/s00259-016-3562-7
    1. Schuster DM, Votaw JR, Nieh PT, et al. Initial experience with the radiotracer anti-1-amino-3-18F-fluorocyclobutane-1-carboxylic acid with PET/CT in prostate carcinoma. J Nucl Med 2007;48:56-63.
    1. Bach-Gansmo T, Nanni C, Nieh PT, et al. Multisite Experience of the Safety, Detection Rate and Diagnostic Performance of Fluciclovine ((18)F) Positron Emission Tomography/Computerized Tomography Imaging in the Staging of Biochemically Recurrent Prostate Cancer. J Urol 2017;197:676-83. 10.1016/j.juro.2016.09.117
    1. Suzuki H, Inoue Y, Fujimoto H, et al. Diagnostic performance and safety of NMK36 (trans-1-amino-3-[18F] fluorocyclobutanecarboxylic acid)-PET/CT in primary prostate pancer: multicenter Phase IIb clinical trial. Jpn J Clin Oncol 2017;47:283. 10.1093/jjco/hyw177
    1. Schuster DM, Nieh PT, Jani AB, et al. Anti-3-[(18)F]FACBC positron emission tomography-computerized tomography and (111)In-capromab pendetide single photon emission computerized tomography-computerized tomography for recurrent prostate carcinoma: results of a prospective clinical trial. J Urol 2014;191:1446-53. 10.1016/j.juro.2013.10.065
    1. Odewole OA, Tade FI, Nieh PT, et al. Recurrent prostate cancer detection with anti-3-[(18)F]FACBC PET/CT: comparison with CT. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2016;43:1773-83. 10.1007/s00259-016-3383-8
    1. Ren J, Yuan L, Wen G, et al. The value of anti-1-amino-3-18F-fluorocyclobutane-1-carboxylic acid PET/CT in the diagnosis of recurrent prostate carcinoma: a meta-analysis. Acta Radiol 2016;57:487-93. 10.1177/0284185115581541
    1. Akin-Akintayo OO, Jani AB, Odewole O, et al. Change in Salvage Radiotherapy Management Based on Guidance With FACBC (Fluciclovine) PET/CT in Postprostatectomy Recurrent Prostate Cancer. Clin Nucl Med 2017;42:e22-8. 10.1097/RLU.0000000000001379
    1. Vāvere AL, Kridel SJ, Wheeler FB, et al. 1-11C-acetate as a PET radiopharmaceutical for imaging fatty acid synthase expression in prostate cancer. J Nucl Med 2008;49:327-34. 10.2967/jnumed.107.046672
    1. Brogsitter C, Zöphel K, Kotzerke J. 18F-Choline, 11C-choline and 11C-acetate PET/CT: comparative analysis for imaging prostate cancer patients. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2013;40 Suppl 1:S18-27. 10.1007/s00259-013-2358-2
    1. Kotzerke J, Volkmer BG, Neumaier B, et al. Carbon-11 acetate positron emission tomography can detect local recurrence of prostate cancer. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2002;29:1380-4. 10.1007/s00259-002-0882-6
    1. Vees H, Buchegger F, Albrecht S, et al. 18F-choline and/or 11C-acetate positron emission tomography: detection of residual or progressive subclinical disease at very low prostate-specific antigen values (<1 ng/mL) after radical prostatectomy. BJU Int 2007;99:1415-20. 10.1111/j.1464-410X.2007.06772.x
    1. Lamanna G, Tabouret-Viaud C, Rager O, et al. Long-term Results of a Comparative PET/CT and PET/MRI Study of 11C-Acetate and 18F-Fluorocholine for Restaging of Early Recurrent Prostate Cancer. Clin Nucl Med 2017;42:e242-6. 10.1097/RLU.0000000000001609
    1. Giovacchini G, Picchio M, Coradeschi E, et al. Predictive factors of [(11)C]choline PET/CT in patients with biochemical failure after radical prostatectomy. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2010;37:301-9. 10.1007/s00259-009-1253-3
    1. Rinnab L, Simon J, Hautmann RE, et al. [(11)C]choline PET/CT in prostate cancer patients with biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy. World J Urol 2009;27:619-25. 10.1007/s00345-009-0371-7
    1. Ghosh A, Heston WD. Tumor target prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA) and its regulation in prostate cancer. J Cell Biochem 2004;91:528-39. 10.1002/jcb.10661
    1. Rosenthal SA, Haseman MK, Polascik TJ. Utility of capromab pendetide (ProstaScint) imaging in the management of prostate cancer. Tech Urol 2001;7:27-37.
    1. Ponsky LE, Cherullo EE, Starkey R, et al. Evaluation of preoperative ProstaScint scans in the prediction of nodal disease. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 2002;5:132-5. 10.1038/sj.pcan.4500570
    1. Troyer JK, Beckett ML, Wright GL., Jr Location of prostate-specific membrane antigen in the LNCaP prostate carcinoma cell line. Prostate 1997;30:232-42. 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0045(19970301)30:4<232::AID-PROS2>;2-N
    1. Rowe SP, Macura KJ, Ciarallo A, et al. Comparison of Prostate-Specific Membrane Antigen-Based 18F-DCFBC PET/CT to Conventional Imaging Modalities for Detection of Hormone-Naïve and Castration-Resistant Metastatic Prostate Cancer. J Nucl Med 2016;57:46-53. 10.2967/jnumed.115.163782
    1. Eder M, Eisenhut M, Babich J, et al. PSMA as a target for radiolabelled small molecules. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2013;40:819-23. 10.1007/s00259-013-2374-2
    1. Budäus L, Leyh-Bannurah SR, Salomon G, et al. Initial Experience of (68)Ga-PSMA PET/CT Imaging in High-risk Prostate Cancer Patients Prior to Radical Prostatectomy. Eur Urol 2016;69:393-6. 10.1016/j.eururo.2015.06.010
    1. Afshar-Oromieh A, Holland-Letz T, Giesel FL, et al. Diagnostic performance of (68)Ga-PSMA-11 (HBED-CC) PET/CT in patients with recurrent prostate cancer: evaluation in 1007 patients. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2017. Aug;44(8):1258-1268. Epub 2017 May 12. Erratum in: Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2017;44:1781. 10.1007/s00259-017-3711-7
    1. Afshar-Oromieh A, Avtzi E, Giesel FL, et al. The diagnostic value of PET/CT imaging with the (68)Ga-labelled PSMA ligand HBED-CC in the diagnosis of recurrent prostate cancer. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2015;42:197-209. 10.1007/s00259-014-2949-6
    1. Eiber M, Maurer T, Souvatzoglou M, et al. Evaluation of Hybrid 68Ga-PSMA Ligand PET/CT in 248 Patients with Biochemical Recurrence After Radical Prostatectomy. J Nucl Med 2015;56:668-74. Erratum in: J Nucl Med 2016;57:1325. 10.2967/jnumed.115.154153
    1. Perera M, Papa N, Christidis D, et al. Sensitivity, Specificity, and Predictors of Positive (68)Ga-Prostate-specific Membrane Antigen Positron Emission Tomography in Advanced Prostate Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Eur Urol 2016;70:926-37. 10.1016/j.eururo.2016.06.021
    1. Giesel FL, Hadaschik B, Cardinale J, et al. F-18 labelled PSMA-1007: biodistribution, radiation dosimetry and histopathological validation of tumor lesions in prostate cancer patients. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2017;44:678-88. 10.1007/s00259-016-3573-4
    1. Rahbar K, Ahmadzadehfar H, Kratochwil C, et al. German Multicenter Study Investigating 177Lu-PSMA-617 Radioligand Therapy in Advanced Prostate Cancer Patients. J Nucl Med 2017;58:85-90. 10.2967/jnumed.116.183194
    1. Wibmer AG, Burger IA, Sala E, et al. Molecular Imaging of Prostate Cancer. Radiographics 2016;36:142-59. 10.1148/rg.2016150059
    1. Mansi R, Fleischmann A, Mäcke HR, et al. Targeting GRPR in urological cancers--from basic research to clinical application. Nat Rev Urol 2013;10:235-44. 10.1038/nrurol.2013.42
    1. Dijkgraaf I, Franssen GM, McBride WJ, et al. PET of tumors expressing gastrin-releasing peptide receptor with an 18F-labeled bombesin analog. J Nucl Med 2012;53:947-52. 10.2967/jnumed.111.100891
    1. Mansour N, Paquette M, Ait-Mohand S, et al. Evaluation of a novel GRPR antagonist for prostate cancer PET imaging: [(64)Cu]-DOTHA(2)-PEG-RM26. Nucl Med Biol 2018;56:31-8. 10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2017.10.006
    1. Mitran B, Thisgaard H, Rosenström U, et al. High Contrast PET Imaging of GRPR Expression in Prostate Cancer Using Cobalt-Labeled Bombesin Antagonist RM26. Contrast Media Mol Imaging 2017;2017:6873684. 10.1155/2017/6873684
    1. Wieser G, Popp I, Christian Rischke H, et al. Diagnosis of recurrent prostate cancer with PET/CT imaging using the gastrin-releasing peptide receptor antagonist (68)Ga-RM2: Preliminary results in patients with negative or inconclusive [(18)F]Fluoroethylcholine-PET/CT. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2017;44:1463-72. 10.1007/s00259-017-3702-8
    1. Kähkönen E, Jambor I, Kemppainen J, et al. In vivo imaging of prostate cancer using [68Ga]-labeled bombesin analog BAY86-7548. Clin Cancer Res 2013;19:5434-43. 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-12-3490
    1. Chatalic KL, Konijnenberg M, Nonnekens J, et al. In Vivo Stabilization of a Gastrin-Releasing Peptide Receptor Antagonist Enhances PET Imaging and Radionuclide Therapy of Prostate Cancer in Preclinical Studies. Theranostics 2016;6:104-17. 10.7150/thno.13580
    1. Larson SM, Morris M, Gunther I, et al. Tumor localization of 16beta-18F-fluoro-5alpha-dihydrotestosterone versus 18F-FDG in patients with progressive, metastatic prostate cancer. J Nucl Med 2004;45:366-73.
    1. Dehdashti F, Picus J, Michalski JM, et al. Positron tomographic assessment of androgen receptors in prostatic carcinoma. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2005;32:344-50. 10.1007/s00259-005-1764-5
    1. Scher HI, Beer TM, Higano CS, et al. Antitumour activity of MDV3100 in castration-resistant prostate cancer: a phase 1-2 study. Lancet 2010;375:1437-46. 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60172-9
    1. Kranzbühler B, Nagel H, Becker AS, et al. Clinical performance of (68)Ga-PSMA-11 PET/MRI for the detection of recurrent prostate cancer following radical prostatectomy. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2018;45:20-30. 10.1007/s00259-017-3850-x
    1. Freitag MT, Radtke JP, Afshar-Oromieh A, et al. Local recurrence of prostate cancer after radical prostatectomy is at risk to be missed in (68)Ga-PSMA-11-PET of PET/CT and PET/MRI: comparison with mpMRI integrated in simultaneous PET/MRI. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2017;44:776-87. 10.1007/s00259-016-3594-z

Source: PubMed

Sponzoři a spolupracovníci

Zdravotní podmínky

Drogové intervence

3
Předplatit