Can Text Messages Increase Empathy and Prosocial Behavior? The Development and Initial Validation of Text to Connect

Sara Konrath, Emily Falk, Andrea Fuhrel-Forbis, Mary Liu, James Swain, Richard Tolman, Rebecca Cunningham, Maureen Walton, Sara Konrath, Emily Falk, Andrea Fuhrel-Forbis, Mary Liu, James Swain, Richard Tolman, Rebecca Cunningham, Maureen Walton

Abstract

To what extent can simple mental exercises cause shifts in empathic habits? Can we use mobile technology to make people more empathic? It may depend on how empathy is measured. Scholars have identified a number of different facets and correlates of empathy. This study is among the first to take a comprehensive, multidimensional approach to empathy to determine how empathy training could affect these different facets and correlates. In doing so, we can learn more about empathy and its multifaceted nature. Participants (N = 90) were randomly assigned to receive either an empathy-building text message program (Text to Connect) or one of two control conditions (active versus passive). Respondents completed measures of dispositional empathy (i.e. self-perceptions of being an empathic person), affective empathy (i.e. motivations to help, immediate feelings of empathic concern), and prosocial behavior (i.e. self-reports and observer-reports) at baseline, and then again after the 14 day intervention period. We found that empathy-building messages increased affective indicators of empathy and prosocial behaviors, but actually decreased self-perceptions of empathy, relative to control messages. Although the brief text messaging intervention did not consistently impact empathy-related personality traits, it holds promise for the use of mobile technology for changing empathic motivations and behaviors.

Conflict of interest statement

Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Figures

Fig 1. Overview of study design.
Fig 1. Overview of study design.

References

    1. House J, Landis K, Umberson D. Social relationships and health. Science. 1988;241(4865):540–5. 10.1126/science.3399889
    1. Konrath S, Brown SL. The effects of giving on givers In: Roberts N, Newman M, editors. Handbook of Health and Social Relationships: American Psychological Association; 2012.
    1. Putnam R. Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community New York, NY: Simon & Schuster; 2000.
    1. Twenge J, Foster J. Mapping the scale of the narcissism epidemic: Increases in narcissism 2002–2007 within ethnic groups. Journal of Research in Personality. 2008;42(6):1619–22. 10.1016/j.jrp.2008.06.014
    1. Twenge J, Konrath S, Foster J, Campbell WK, Bushman B. Egos inflating over time: a cross-temporal meta-analysis of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory. Journal of Personality. 2008;76(4):875–902; discussion 3–18. Epub 2008/05/30. doi: JOPY507 [pii] 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00507.x .
    1. Konrath S, Chopik W, Hsing C, O'Brien E. Changes in attachment style in American college students over time: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review. 2014;in press.
    1. Konrath S, O'Brien E, Hsing C. Changes in dispositional empathy in American college students over time: a meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review. 2011;15(2):180–98. Epub 2010/08/07. doi: 1088868310377395 [pii] 10.1177/1088868310377395 .
    1. O’Brien E, Konrath SH, Grühn D, Hagen AL. Empathic concern and perspective taking: Linear and quadratic effects of age across the adult life span. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. 2013;68(2):168–75.
    1. Konrath S. The empathy paradox: Increasing disconnection in the age of increasing connection In: Luppicini R, editor. Handbook fo Research on Technoself: Identity in a Technological Society. Hershey, PA: IGI Global; 2012. p. 204–28.
    1. Turkle S. Alone together: Why we expect more from technology and less from each other: Basic Books; 2012.
    1. Ellison N, Steinfield C, Lampe C. The Benefits of Facebook “Friends:” Social Capital and College Students’ Use of Online Social Network Sites. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. 2007;12(4):1143–68. 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00367.x
    1. Ellison N, Steinfield C, Lampe C. Connection strategies: Social capital implications of Facebook-enabled communication practices. New Media & Society; 2011:1461444810385389.
    1. Bryant BK. An index of empathy for children and adolescents. Child Development. 1982:413–25.
    1. Davis M. Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1983;44(1):113–26. 10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113
    1. Batson CD. Altruism in humans: Oxford University Press; 2011.
    1. Van Honk J, Schutter DJ, Bos PA, Kruijt A-W, Lentjes EG, Baron-Cohen S. Testosterone administration impairs cognitive empathy in women depending on second-to-fourth digit ratio. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2011;108(8):3448–52.
    1. Goldstein TR, Winner E. Enhancing empathy and theory of mind. Journal of Cognition and Development. 2012;13(1):19–37.
    1. Davis M, Kraus L. Personality and empathic accuracy In: Ickes W, editor. Empathic accuracy. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1997.
    1. Ickes W. Empathic Accuracy. New York: The Guilford Press; 1997.
    1. Truax CB, Wargo DG, Frank JD, Imber SD, Battle CC, Hoehn-Saric R, et al. Therapist empathy, genuineness, and warmth and patient therapeutic outcome. Journal of Consulting Psychology; Journal of Consulting Psychology. 1966;30(5):395
    1. Barkai J, Fine V. Empathy training for lawyers and students. Southwestern University Law Review. 1983;13:505–29.
    1. Decety J, Lamm C. Human empathy through the lens of social neuroscience. The Scientific World Journal. 2006;6:1146–63.
    1. Eisenberg N, Miller PA. The relation of empathy to prosocial and related behaviors. Psychological Bulletin. 1987;101(1):91
    1. Underwood B, Moore B. Perspective-taking and altruism. Psychological Bulletin. 1982;91(1):143.
    1. Borman WC, Penner LA, Allen TD, Motowidlo SJ. Personality predictors of citizenship performance. International Journal of Selection and Assessment. 2001;9(1‐2):52–69.
    1. Jolliffe D, Farrington DP. Empathy and offending: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior. 2004;9(5):441–76.
    1. Miller PA, Eisenberg N. The relation of empathy to aggressive and externalizing/antisocial behavior. Psychological Bulletin. 1988;103(3):324
    1. Clary EG, Snyder M, Ridge RD, Copeland J, Stukas AA, Haugen J, et al. Understanding and Assessing the Motivations of Volunteers: A Functional Approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1998;74(6):1516–30.
    1. Batson CD, Moran T. Empathy-induced altruism in a prisoner's dilemma. European Journal of Social Psychology. 1999;29(7):909–24.
    1. Hogan R. Development of an empathy scale. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology. 1969;33(3):307
    1. Jolliffe D, Farrington DP. Development and validation of the Basic Empathy Scale. Journal of Adolescence. 2006;29(4):589–611. 10.1016/j.adolescence.2005.08.010
    1. King MF, Bruner GC. Social desirability bias: A neglected aspect of validity testing. Psychology & Marketing. 2000;17(2):79–103.
    1. Nederhof AJ. Methods of coping with social desirability bias: A review. European Journal of Social Psychology. 1985;15(3):263–80.
    1. Nisbett RE, Wilson TD. Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review. 1977;84(3):231.
    1. Thornton B, Moore S. Physical attractiveness contrast effect: Implications for self-esteem and evaluations of the social self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 1993;19(4):474–80.
    1. Nelson LD, Norton MI. From student to superhero: Situational primes shape future helping. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 2005;41(4):423–30.
    1. Rushton P, Fulker DW, Neale MC, Nias DK, Eysenck HJ. Altruism and aggression: the heritability of individual differences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1986;50(6):1192
    1. Davis M, Luce C, Kraus SJ. The heritability of characteristics associated with dispositional empathy. Journal of Personality. 1994;62(3):369–91. Epub 1994/09/01. .
    1. Matthews KA, Batson CD, Horn J, Rosenman RH. “Principles in his nature which interest him in the fortune of others…”: The heritability of empathic concern for others1. Journal of Personality. 1981;49(3):237–47.
    1. Zahn-Waxler C, Robinson JL, Emde RN. The development of empathy in twins. Developmental Psychology. 1992;28(6):1038.
    1. Van der Mark IL, Ijzendoorn MHv, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ. Development of Empathy in Girls During the Second Year of Life: Associations with Parenting, Attachment, and Temperament. Social Development. 2002;11(4):451–68. 10.1111/1467-9507.00210
    1. Volbrecht MM, Lemery-Chalfant K, Aksan N, Zahn-Waxler C, Goldsmith HH. Examining the familial link between positive affect and empathy development in the second year. The Journal of genetic psychology. 2007;168(2):105–30.
    1. Bar-Tal D, Raviv A. Consistency of helping-behavior measures. Child Development. 1979:1235–8.
    1. Eisenberg N, Shell R, Pasternack J, Lennon R, Beller R, Mathy RM. Prosocial development in middle childhood: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology. 1987;23(5):712.
    1. Eisenberg N, Carlo G, Murphy B, Court P. Prosocial development in late adolescence: a longitudinal study. Child Development. 1995;66(4):1179–97.
    1. Davis M, Franzoi SL. Stability and change in adolescent self-consciousness and empathy. Journal of Research in Personality. 1991;25(1):70–87.
    1. Eisenberg N, Guthrie IK, Cumberland A, Murphy BC, Shepard SA, Zhou Q, et al. Prosocial development in early adulthood: a longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2002;82(6):993
    1. Grühn D, Rebucal K, Diehl M, Lumley M, Labouvie-Vief G. Empathy across the adult lifespan: Longitudinal and experience-sampling findings. Emotion. 2008;8(6):753 10.1037/a0014123
    1. Eisenberg N, Guthrie IK, Murphy BC, Shepard SA, Cumberland A, Carlo G. Consistency and development of prosocial dispositions: A longitudinal study. Child Development. 1999;70(6):1360–72.
    1. Klein KJ, Hodges SD. Gender differences, motivation, and empathic accuracy: When it pays to understand. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2001;27(6):720–30.
    1. Ickes W, Simpson JA. Motivational Aspects of Empathic Accuracy In: Fletcher G, Clark M, editors. Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Interpersonal processes. 2. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers Ltd; 2003. p. 229–49.
    1. Zhou Q, Eisenberg N, Losoya SH, Fabes RA, Reiser M, Guthrie IK, et al. The Relations of Parental Warmth and Positive Expressiveness to Children's Empathy-Related Responding and Social Functioning: A Longitudinal Study. Child Development. 2002;73(3):893–915.
    1. Krevans J, Gibbs JC. Parents' use of inductive discipline: Relations to children's empathy and prosocial behavior. Child Development. 1996;67(6):3263–77.
    1. Strayer J, Roberts W. Empathy and Observed Anger and Aggression in Five-Year-Olds. Social Development. 2004;13(1):1–13.
    1. Koestner R, Franz C, Weinberger J. The family origins of empathic concern: A 26-year longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1990;58(4):709
    1. Brehm SS, Fletcher BL, West V. Effects of empathy instructions on first-grader's liking of other people. Child Study Journal. 1981.
    1. Barnett MA. Similarity of experience and empathy in preschoolers. The Journal of genetic psychology. 1984;145(2):241–50.
    1. Hatcher SL, Nadeau MS, Walsh LK, Reynolds M, Galea J, Marz K. The teaching of empathy for high school and college students: Testing Rogerian methods with the Interpersonal Reactivity Index. Adolescence. 1994.
    1. Kremer JF, Dietzen LL. Two approaches to teaching accurate empathy to undergraduates: Teacher-intensive and self-directed. Journal of College Student Development. 1991.
    1. Barak A, Engle C, Katzir L, Fisher WA. Increasing the level of empathic understanding by means of a game. Simulation & Gaming. 1987;18(4):458–70.
    1. Feshbach N. Empathy, empathy training and the regulation of aggression in elementary school children Aggression in children and youth: Springer; 1984. p. 192–208.
    1. Feshbach N, Konrad R. Modifying aggression and social prejudice Prevention and Control of Aggression and the Impact on its Victims: Springer; 2001. p. 355–60.
    1. Barnett MA, Howard JA, Melton EM, Dino GA. Effect of inducing sadness about self or other on helping behavior in high-and low-empathic children. Child Development. 1982:920–3.
    1. Perry MA. Modeling and instructions in training for counselor empathy. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 1975;22(3):173.
    1. Kohn A. Caring kids: The role of the schools: Phi Delta Kappan; 1991.
    1. Fowler JH, Christakis NA. Cooperative behavior cascades in human social networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2010;107(12):5334–8.
    1. Hodges SD, Wegner DM. Automatic and controlled empathy. Empathic accuracy. 1997:311–39.
    1. Ericsson KA. The influence of experience and deliberate practice on the development of superior expert performance. The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance. 2006:683–703.
    1. Milton JG, Small SS, Solodkin A. On the road to automatic: dynamic aspects in the development of expertise. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology. 2004;21(3):134–43.
    1. Sonnby-Borgström M, Jönsson P, Svensson O. Emotional empathy as related to mimicry reactions at different levels of information processing. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior. 2003;27(1):3–23.
    1. Warner RE. Enhancing teacher affective sensitivity by a videotape program. The Journal of Educational Research. 1984:366–8.
    1. Konrath S. Positive technology: Using mobile phones for psychosocial interventions In: Yan Z, editor. Encyclopedia of Mobile Phone Behavior, in press: IGI Global; 2014.
    1. Center P. . 2012.
    1. Nielsen. . 2013.
    1. Campbell SW, Park YJ. Social implications of mobile telephony: The rise of personal communication society. Sociology Compass. 2008;2(2):371–87.
    1. Ling R. New Tech, New Ties: How Mobile Communication Is Reshaping Social Cohesion. Cambridge, Mass; London: The MIT Press; 2010.
    1. Dey AK, Wac K, Ferreira D, Tassini K, Hong J-H, Rojas J. Getting closer: an empirical investigation of the proximity of user to their smart phones. Ubicomp. 2011:163–72.
    1. Cole-Lewis H, Kershaw T. Text messaging as a tool for behavior change in disease prevention and management. Epidemiologic reviews. 2010;32(1):56–69.
    1. Fiordelli M, Diviani N, Schulz PJ. Mapping mHealth research: a decade of evolution. Journal of medical Internet research. 2013;15(5).
    1. Fjeldsoe BS, Marshall AL, Miller YD. Behavior change interventions delivered by mobile telephone short-message service. American journal of preventive medicine. 2009;36(2):165 10.1016/j.amepre.2008.09.040
    1. Herbert L, Owen V, Pascarella L, Streisand R. Text Message Interventions for Children and Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes: A Systematic Review. Diabetes technology & therapeutics. 2013;15(5):362–70.
    1. Krishna S, Boren SA, Balas EA. Healthcare via cell phones: a systematic review. Telemedicine and e-Health. 2009;15(3):231–40. 10.1089/tmj.2008.0099
    1. Liang X, Wang Q, Yang X, Cao J, Chen J, Mo X, et al. Effect of mobile phone intervention for diabetes on glycaemic control: a meta-analysis. Diabetic Medicine. 2011;28(4):455–63. 10.1111/j.1464-5491.2010.03180.x
    1. Militello LK, Kelly SA, Melnyk BM. Systematic Review of Text-Messaging Interventions to Promote Healthy Behaviors in Pediatric and Adolescent Populations: Implications for Clinical Practice and Research. Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing. 2012;9(2):66–77. 10.1111/j.1741-6787.2011.00239.x
    1. Park LG, Howie-Esquivel J, Dracup K. A quantitative systematic review of the efficacy of mobile phone interventions to improve medication adherence. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 2014.
    1. Shaw R, Bosworth H. Short message service (SMS) text messaging as an intervention medium for weight loss: A literature review. Health informatics journal. 2012;18(4):235–50. 10.1177/1460458212442422
    1. Whittaker R, Borland R, Bullen C, Lin RB, McRobbie H, Rodgers A. Mobile phone-based interventions for smoking cessation. Cochrane database syst Rev. 2009;4.
    1. Przybylski AK, Weinstein N. Can you connect with me now? How the presence of mobile communication technology influences face-to-face conversation quality. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 2013;30(3):237–46.
    1. Abraham A, Pocheptsova A, Ferraro R. The effect of mobile phone use on prosocial behavior. Unpublished manuscript. 2012.
    1. Coyne SM, Stockdale L, Busby D, Iverson B, Grant DM. “I luv u:)!”: A Descriptive Study of the Media Use of Individuals in Romantic Relationships. Family Relations. 2011;60(2):150–62.
    1. Faulkner X, Culwin F. When fingers do the talking: a study of text messaging. Interacting with computers. 2005;17(2):167–85.
    1. Padilla‐Walker LM, Coyne SM, Fraser AM. Getting a High‐Speed Family Connection: Associations Between Family Media Use and Family Connection. Family Relations. 2012;61(3):426–40.
    1. Pettigrew J. Text messaging and connectedness within close interpersonal relationships. Marriage & Family Review. 2009;45(6–8):697–716.
    1. Cocotas A. Kids send a mind boggling number of texts every month. Business Insider. 2013.
    1. Huesmann LR, Guerra NG. Children's normative beliefs about aggression and aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1997;72(2):408
    1. Wilhelm MO, Bekkers R. Helping behavior, dispositional empathic concern, and the principle of care. Social Psychology Quarterly. 2010;73(1):11–32.
    1. Wilhelm MO, Bekkers R. Principle of Care Scale. Unpublished scale. 2012.
    1. Batson CD, Batson JG, Griffitt CA, Barrientos S, Brandt JR, Sprengelmeyer P, et al. Negative-state relief and the empathy—altruism hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1989;56(6):922.
    1. Batson CD, Batson JG, Slingsby JK, Harrell KL, Peekna HM, Todd RM. Empathic joy and the empathy-altruism hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1991;61(3):413
    1. Clary EG, Snyder M. The Motivations to Volunteer. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 1999;8(5):156–9. 10.1111/1467-8721.00037
    1. Konrath S, Fuhrel-Forbis A, Lou A, Brown SL. Motives for Volunteering Are Associated with Mortality Risk in Older Adults. Health Psychology. 2012;31(1):87–96. 10.1037/a0025226
    1. Davis MH. Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1983;44(1):113–26. 10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113
    1. Eisenberg N, Lennon R. Sex differences in empathy and related capacities. Psychological Bulletin. 1983;94(1):100–31.
    1. Kling KC, Hyde JS, Showers CJ, Buswell BN. Gender differences in self-esteem: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin. 1999;125(4):470
    1. Batson CD, Fultz J, Schoenrade PA. Distress and empathy: Two qualitatively distinct vicarious emotions with different motivational consequences. Journal of Personality. 1987;55(1):19–39.
    1. Schwarz N, Bless H. Constructing reality and its alternatives: An inclusion/exclusion model of assimilation and contrast effects in social judgment. The construction of social judgments. 1992:217–45.
    1. Schwarz N, Bless H. Assimilation and contrast effects in attitude measurement: An inclusion/exclusion model. Advances in consumer research. 1992;19(1):72–7.
    1. Heine SJ, Lehman DR, Peng K, Greenholtz J. What's wrong with cross-cultural comparisons of subjective Likert scales?: The reference-group effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2002;82(6):903
    1. Schmit MJ, Ryan AM, Stierwalt SL, Powell AB. Frame-of-reference effects on personality scale scores and criterion-related validity. Journal of Applied Psychology. 1995;80(5):607.
    1. Wood AM, Brown GD, Maltby J, Watkinson P. How are personality judgments made? A cognitive model of reference group effects, personality scale responses, and behavioral reactions. Journal of Personality. 2012;80(5):1275–311. 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00763.x
    1. Schwarz N, Bless H, Strack F, Klumpp G, Rittenauer-Schatka H, Simons A. Ease of retrieval as information: another look at the availability heuristic. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1991;61(2):195–202.
    1. Derntl B, Finkelmeyer A, Eickhoff S, Kellermann T, Falkenberg DI, Schneider F, et al. Multidimensional assessment of empathic abilities: neural correlates and gender differences. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2010;35(1):67–82. 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.10.006 .
    1. Hayes SC, Luoma JB, Bond FW, Masuda A, Lillis J. Acceptance and commitment therapy: model, processes and outcomes. Behav Res Ther. 2006;44(1):1–25. Epub 2005/11/23. 10.1016/j.brat.2005.06.006 .
    1. Hepper EG, Hart CM, Sedikides C. Moving Narcissus: Can Narcissists Be Empathic? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2014;40(9):1079–91. 10.1177/0146167214535812
    1. Lilius JM, Kanov J, Dutton J, Worline MC, Maitlis S. Compassion revealed: What we know about compassion at work (and where we need to know more). Ann Arbor. 2011;1001:48109.
    1. Rynes SL, Bartunek JM, Dutton JE, Margolis JD. Care and compassion through an organizational lens: Opening up new possibilities. Academy of Management Review. 2012;37(4):503–23.
    1. Dutton JE, Workman K, Hardin AE. Compassion at Work. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior. 2014;in press.
    1. Galinsky AD, Magee JC, Inesi ME, Gruenfeld DH. Power and perspectives not taken. Psychological Science. 2006;17(12):1068–74.
    1. Beck RS, Daughtridge R, Sloane PD. Physician-patient communication in the primary care office: a systematic review. The Journal of the American Board of Family Practice. 2002;15(1):25–38.
    1. Hojat M, Louis DZ, Markham FW, Wender R, Rabinowitz C, Gonnella JS. Physicians' empathy and clinical outcomes for diabetic patients. Academic Medicine. 2011;86(3):359–64. 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3182086fe1
    1. Stewart MA. Effective physician-patient communication and health outcomes: a review. CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal. 1995;152(9):1423
    1. Kurtz RR, Grummon DL. Different approaches to the measurement of therapist empathy and their relationship to therapy outcomes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1972;39(1):106
    1. Truax CB, Mitchell KM. Research on certain therapist interpersonal skills in relation to process and outcome In: Bergin AE, Garfield SL, editors. Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change New York: Wiley; 1971. p. 299–344.
    1. Landry SH, Smith KE, Swank PR. Responsive parenting: establishing early foundations for social, communication, and independent problem-solving skills. Developmental Psychology. 2006;42(4):627
    1. Rothbaum F, Weisz JR. Parental caregiving and child externalizing behavior in nonclinical samples: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin. 1994;116(1):55
    1. Wolff MS, Ijzendoorn MH. Sensitivity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental antecedents of infant attachment. Child Development. 1997;68(4):571–91.
    1. Grossmann K, Grossmann KE, Fremmer-Bombik E, Kindler H, Scheuerer-Englisch H, Zimmermann P. The uniqueness of the child–father attachment relationship: Fathers’ sensitive and challenging play as a pivotal variable in a 16-year longitudinal study. Social Development. 2002;11(3):301–37.
    1. Waller R, Gardner F, Hyde LW. What are the associations between parenting, callous-unemotional traits, and antisocial behavior in youth? A systematic review of evidence. Clin Psychol Rev. 2013;33(4):593–608. 10.1016/j.cpr.2013.03.001 .
    1. Ramsauer B, Lotzin A, Muhlhan C, Romer G, Nolte T, Fonagy P, et al. A randomized controlled trial comparing Circle of Security Intervention and treatment as usual as interventions to increase attachment security in infants of mentally ill mothers: Study Protocol. BMC Psychiatry. 2014;14:24 10.1186/1471-244X-14-24
    1. Leplatte D, Rosenblum KL, Stanton E, Miller N, Muzik M. Mental health in primary care for adolescent parents. Mental Health in Family Medicine. 2012;9(1):39–45.
    1. Swain JE, Ho SS, Dayton CJ, Rosenblum KL, Muzik M. Attachment Intervention for Trauma-Exposed Mothers Affects Stress and Empathy Neurocircuits. 34th Annual Meeting of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry; Toronto2014.
    1. Benjamini Y, Hochberg Y. Controlling the false discovery rate: a practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B (Methodological). 1995:289–300.
    1. Stellar JE, Manzo VM, Kraus MW, Keltner D. Class and compassion: Socioeconomic factors predict responses to suffering. Emotion. 2012;12(3):449 10.1037/a0026508
    1. Piff PK. Wealth and the Inflated Self Class, Entitlement, and Narcissism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2014;40(1):34–43. 10.1177/0146167213501699
    1. Hein G, Singer T. I feel how you feel but not always: the empathic brain and its modulation. Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 2008;18(2):153–8. 10.1016/j.conb.2008.07.012
    1. Decety J. The neural pathways, development and functions of empathy. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences. 2015;3:1–6.
    1. Swain JE, Kim P, Spicer J, Ho SS, Dayton CJ, Elmadih A, et al. Approaching the biology of human parental attachment: Brain imaging, oxytocin and coordinated assessments of mothers and fathers. Brain Research. 2014. 10.1016/j.brainres.2014.03.007 .
    1. Moses-Kolko EL, Hipwell A, Swain JE. In search of neural endophenotypes of postpartum psychopathology and disrupted maternal caregiving. Journal of Neuroendocrinology. 2014;in press.
    1. Ho SS, Konrath S, Brown S, Swain JE. Empathy and stress related neural responses in maternal decision making. Front Neurosci. 2014;8:152–. 10.3389/fnins.2014.00152
    1. Insel TR. The NIMH Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) Project: precision medicine for psychiatry. Am J Psychiatry. 2014;171(4):395–7. 10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.14020138 .
    1. Cuthbert BN. The RDoC framework: facilitating transition from ICD/DSM to dimensional approaches that integrate neuroscience and psychopathology. World Psychiatry. 2014;13(1):28–35. 10.1002/wps.20087
    1. Schreiter S, Pijnenborg GH, Aan Het Rot M. Empathy in adults with clinical or subclinical depressive symptoms. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2013;150(1):1–16. 10.1016/j.jad.2013.03.009 .

Source: PubMed

Sponsors en medewerkers

Medische omstandigheden

Geneesmiddelinterventies

3
Abonneren