Mental health care for older adults: recent advances and new directions in clinical practice and research

Charles F Reynolds 3rd, Dilip V Jeste, Perminder S Sachdev, Dan G Blazer, Charles F Reynolds 3rd, Dilip V Jeste, Perminder S Sachdev, Dan G Blazer

Abstract

The world's population is aging, bringing about an ever-greater burden of mental disorders in older adults. Given multimorbidities, the mental health care of these people and their family caregivers is labor-intensive. At the same time, ageism is a big problem for older people, with and without mental disorders. Positive elements of aging, such as resilience, wisdom and prosocial behaviors, need to be highlighted and promoted, both to combat stigma and to help protect and improve mental health in older adults. The positive psychiatry of aging is not an oxymoron, but a scientific construct strongly informed by research evidence. We champion a broader concept of geriatric psychiatry - one that encompasses health as well as illness. In the present paper, we address these issues in the context of four disorders that are the greatest source of years lived with disability: neurocognitive disorders, major depression, schizophrenia, and substance use disorders. We emphasize the need for implementation of multidisciplinary team care, with comprehensive assessment, clinical management, intensive outreach, and coordination of mental, physical and social health services. We also underscore the need for further research into moderators and mediators of treatment response variability. Because optimal care of older adults with mental disorders is both patient-focused and family-centered, we call for further research into enhancing the well-being of family caregivers. To optimize both the safety and efficacy of pharmacotherapy, further attention to metabolic, cardiovascular and neurological tolerability is much needed, together with further development and testing of medications that reduce the risk for suicide. At the same time, we also address positive aging and normal cognitive aging, both as an antidote to ageism and as a catalyst for change in the way we think about aging per se and late-life mental disorders more specifically. It is in this context that we provide directions for future clinical care and research.

Keywords: Positive psychiatry of aging; caregivers; cognitive aging; collaborative care; comorbidities; major depression; measurement-based care; neurocognitive disorders; schizophrenia; substance use disorders.

© 2022 World Psychiatric Association.

References

    1. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs . World population ageing 2019. New York: United Nations, 2020.
    1. Statista . Children and old‐age dependency ratio in China from 1950 to 2010 with forecasts until 2100. .
    1. van der Werf M, van Boxtel M, Verhey F et al. Mild hearing impairment and psychotic experiences in a normal aging population. Schizophr Res 2007;94:180‐6.
    1. Norton S, Matthews FE, Barnes DE et al. Potential for primary prevention of Alzheimer's disease: an analysis of population‐based data. Lancet Neurol 2014;13:788‐94.
    1. Sheline YI, Disabato BM, Hranilovich J et al. Treatment course with antidepressant therapy in late‐life depression. Am J Psychiatry 2012;169:1185‐93.
    1. Kok RM, Reynolds CF 3rd. Management of depression in older adults: a review. JAMA 2017;317:2114‐22.
    1. Wu LT, Blazer DG. Substance use disorders and psychiatric comorbidity in mid and later life: a review. Int J Epidemiol 2014;43:304‐17.
    1. Rowe JW, Kahn RL. Successful aging. Gerontologist 1997;37:433‐40.
    1. Jeste DV, Savla GN, Thompson WK et al. Association between older age and more successful aging: critical role of resilience and depression. Am J Psychiatry 2013;170:188‐96.
    1. Baltes PB, Staudinger UM. Wisdom. A metaheuristic (pragmatic) to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence. Am Psychol 2000;55:122‐36.
    1. Wilkinson RG, Marmot MG (eds). Social determinants of health: the solid facts, 2nd ed. Copenhagen: World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe, 2003.
    1. Jeste DV, Koh S, Pender VB. Perspective: Social determinants of mental health for the new decade of healthy aging. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2022;30:733‐6.
    1. Jeste DV, Pender VB. Social determinants of mental health: recommendations for research, training, practice, and policy. JAMA Psychiatry 2022;79:283‐4.
    1. Lee EE, Bangen KJ, Avanzino JA et al. Outcomes of randomized clinical trials of interventions to enhance social, emotional, and spiritual components of wisdom: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. JAMA Psychiatry 2020;77:925‐35.
    1. Al‐Rousan T, Rubenstein L, Sieleni B et al. Inside the nation's largest mental health institution: a prevalence study in a state prison system. BMC Public Health 2017;17:342.
    1. Mikton C, de la Fuente‐Núñez V, Officer A et al. Ageism: a social determinant of health that has come of age. Lancet 2021;397:1333‐4.
    1. Nguyen TT, Jeste DV. Ageism: the brain strikes back! Cerebrum, July 15, 2021.
    1. US Institute of Medicine . The mental health and substance use workforce for older adults: in whose hands? Washington: National Academies Press, 2012.
    1. National Academies of Sciences , Engineering, and Medicine. Families caring for an aging America. Washington: National Academies Press, 2016.
    1. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine . Social isolation and loneliness in older adults: opportunities for the health care system. Washington: National Academies Press, 2020.
    1. Donovan NJ, Blazer D. Social isolation and loneliness in older adults: review and commentary of a National Academies Report. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2020;28:1233‐44.
    1. Perissinotto CM, Cenzer IS, Covinsky KE. Loneliness in older persons: a predictor of functional decline and death. Arch Intern Med 2021;172:1078‐83.
    1. Holt‐Lunstad J, Smith TB, Baker M et al. Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: a meta‐analytic review. Perspect Psychol Sci 2015;10:227‐37.
    1. Kuiper JS, Zuidersma M, Oude Voshaar RC et al. Social relationships and risk of dementia: a systematic review and meta‐analysis of longitudinal cohort studies. Ageing Res Rev 2015;22:39‐57.
    1. Valtorta NK, Kanaan M, Gilbody S et al. Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for coronary heart disease and stroke: systematic review and meta‐analysis of longitudinal observational studies. Heart 2016;102:1009‐16.
    1. Domènech‐Abella J, Mundó J, Haro JM et al. Anxiety, depression, loneliness and social network in the elderly: longitudinal associations from The Irish Longitudinal Study on Ageing (TILDA). J Affect Disord 2019;246:82‐8.
    1. Veazie S, Gilbert J, Winchell K et al. Addressing social isolation to improve the health of older adults: a rapid review. Rockville: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 2019.
    1. Eglit GML, Palmer BW, Martin AS et al. Loneliness in schizophrenia: construct clarification, measurement, and clinical relevance. PLoS One 2018;13:e0194021.
    1. Jeste DV, Lee EE, Palmer BW et al. Moving from humanities to sciences: a new model of wisdom fortified by sciences of neurobiology, medicine, and evolution. Psychol Inq 2020;31:134‐43.
    1. Jeste DV, Thomas ML, Liu J et al. Is spirituality a component of wisdom? Study of 1,786 adults using expanded San Diego Wisdom Scale (Jeste‐Thomas Wisdom Index). J Psychiatr Res 2021;132:174‐81.
    1. Thomas ML, Palmer BW, Lee EE et al. Abbreviated San Diego Wisdom Scale (SD‐WISE‐7) and Jeste‐Thomas Wisdom Index (JTWI). Int Psychogeriatr 2021; doi: 10.1017/S1041610221002684.
    1. Ardelt M. Empirical assessment of a three‐dimensional wisdom scale. Res Aging 2003;25:275‐324.
    1. Webster JD. An exploratory analysis of a self‐assessed wisdom scale. J Adult Dev 2003;10:13‐22.
    1. Ardelt M. Antecedents and effects of wisdom in old age: a longitudinal perspective on aging well. Res Aging 2000;22:360‐94.
    1. Sternberg RJ (ed). Wisdom: its nature, origins, and development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
    1. Carstensen LL. Socioemotional selectivity theory: the role of perceived endings in human motivation. Gerontologist 2021;61:1188‐96.
    1. Attar‐Schwartz S, Tan JP, Buchanan A et al. Grandparenting and adolescent adjustment in two‐parent biological, lone‐parent, and step‐families. J Fam Psychol 2009;23:67‐75.
    1. Lee EE, Depp C, Palmer BW et al. High prevalence and adverse health effects of loneliness in community‐dwelling adults across the lifespan: role of wisdom as a protective factor. Int Psychogeriatr 2019;31:1447‐62.
    1. Jeste DV, Di Somma S, Lee EE et al. Study of loneliness and wisdom in 482 middle‐aged and oldest‐old adults: a comparison between people in Cilento, Italy and San Diego, USA. Aging Ment Health 2021;25:2149‐59.
    1. Grennan G, Balasubramani PP, Alim F et al. Cognitive and neural corre­lates of loneliness and wisdom during emotional bias. Cereb Cortex 2021;31:3311‐22.
    1. Chow EOW, Fung SF. Narrative group intervention to rediscover life wisdom among Hong Kong Chinese older adults: a single‐blind randomized waitlist‐controlled trial. Innov Aging 2021;5:igab027.
    1. Connor KM, Davidson JRT. Development of a new resilience scale: the Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale (CD‐RISC). Depress Anxiety 2003;18:76‐82.
    1. Duckworth AL, Quinn PD. Development and validation of the Short Grit Scale (Grit–S). J Pers Assess 2009;91:166‐74.
    1. Cosco TD, Howse K, Brayne C. Healthy ageing, resilience and wellbeing. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci 2017;26:579‐83.
    1. Klasa K, Galaitsi S, Wister A et al. System models for resilience in gerontology: application to the COVID‐19 pandemic. BMC Geriatr 2021;21:51.
    1. Zeng Y, Shen K. Resilience significantly contributes to exceptional longevity. Curr Gerontol Geriatr Res 2010;2010:e525693.
    1. Treichler EBH, Glorioso D, Lee EE et al. A pragmatic trial of a group intervention in senior housing communities to increase resilience. Int Psychogeriatr 2020;32:173‐82.
    1. Czeisler MÉ, Lane RI, Wiley JF et al. Follow‐up survey of US adult reports of mental health, substance use, and suicidal ideation during the COVID‐19 pandemic, September 2020. JAMA Netw Open 2021;4:e2037665.
    1. Dezutter J, Casalin S, Wachholtz A et al. Meaning in life: an important factor for the psychological well‐being of chronically ill patients? Rehabil Psychol 2013;58:334‐41.
    1. Aftab A, Lee EE, Klaus F et al. Meaning in life and its relationship with physical, mental, and cognitive functioning: a study of 1,042 community‐dwelling adults across the lifespan. J Clin Psychiatry 2019;81:19m13064.
    1. Musich S, Wang SS, Kraemer S et al. Purpose in life and positive health outcomes among older adults. Popul Health Manag 2018;21:139‐47.
    1. Steptoe A, Fancourt D. Leading a meaningful life at older ages and its relationship with social engagement, prosperity, health, biology, and time use. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2019;116:1207‐12.
    1. Lutzman M, Sommerfeld E. The role of meaning in life as a protective factor in suicidal ideation among elderly men with physical illnesses. Curr Psychol 2021; doi: 10.1007/s12144-021-02332-z
    1. Sharif F, Jahanbin I, Amirsadat A et al. Effectiveness of life review therapy on quality of life in the late life at day care centers of Shiraz, Iran: a randomized controlled trial. Int J Community Based Nurs Midwifery 2018;6:136‐45.
    1. Westerhof GJ, Slatman S. In search of the best evidence for life review thera­py to reduce depressive symptoms in older adults: a meta‐analysis of ran­domized controlled trials. Clin Psychol Sci Pract 2019;26:e12301.
    1. Levasseur M, Dubois MF, Généreux M et al. Capturing how age‐friendly communities foster positive health, social participation and health equity: a study protocol of key components and processes that promote population health in aging Canadians. BMC Public Health 2017;17:502.
    1. Librada‐Flores S, Nabal‐Vicuña M, Forero‐Vega D et al. Implementation models of compassionate communities and compassionate cities at the end of life: a systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020;17:6271.
    1. Jeste DV, Palmer B (eds). Positive psychiatry: a clinical handbook. Washington: American Psychiatric Publishing, 2015.
    1. Depp CA, Jeste DV. Definitions and predictors of successful aging: a comprehensive review of larger quantitative studies. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2006;14:6‐20.
    1. Stowe JD, Cooney TM. Examining Rowe and Kahn's concept of successful aging: importance of taking a life course perspective. Gerontologist 2015;55:43‐50.
    1. Thomas ML, Kaufmann CN, Palmer BW et al. Paradoxical trend for improvement in mental health with aging: a community‐based study of 1,546 adults aged 21‐100 years. J Clin Psychiatry 2016;77:e1019‐25.
    1. Li C, Wu W, Jin H et al. Successful aging in Shanghai, China: definition, distribution and related factors. Int Psychogeriatr 2006;18:551‐63.
    1. VanderWeele TJ. On the promotion of human flourishing. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2017;114:8148‐56.
    1. Kempermann G, Gast D, Gage FH. Neuroplasticity in old age: sustained fivefold induction of hippocampal neurogenesis by long‐term environmental enrichment. Ann Neurol 2002;52:135‐43.
    1. Erickson KI, Leckie RL, Weinstein AM. Physical activity, fitness, and gray matter volume. Neurobiol Aging 2014;35:S20‐8.
    1. Blazer DG, Wallace RB. Cognitive aging: what every geriatric psychiatrist should know. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2016;24:776‐81.
    1. Lachman ME, Agrigoroaei S, Tun PA et al. Monitoring cognitive functioning: psychometric properties of the brief test of adult cognition by telephone. Assessment 2014;21:404‐17.
    1. Krendl AC, Kensinger EA. Does older adults' cognitive function disrupt the malleability of their attitudes toward outgroup members? An fMRI investigation. PLoS One 2016;11:e0152698.
    1. Grossmann I, Na J, Varnum MEW et al. Reasoning about social conflicts improves into old age. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010;107:7246‐50.
    1. Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR. “Mini‐Mental State”. A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res 1975;12:189‐98.
    1. Nasreddine ZS, Phillips NA, Bédirian V et al. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: a brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. J Am Geriatr Soc 2005;53:695‐9.
    1. Morrison JH, Baxter MG. The ageing cortical synapse: hallmarks and implications for cognitive decline. Nat Rev Neurosci 2012;13:240‐50.
    1. Teissier T, Boulanger E, Deramecourt V. Normal ageing of the brain: histological and biological aspects. Rev Neurol 2020;176:649‐60.
    1. US Institute of Medicine . Cognitive aging: progress in understanding and opportunities for action. Mil Med 2015;180:1111‐3.
    1. Tuulio‐Henriksson A, Perälä J, Saarni SI et al. Cognitive functioning in severe psychiatric disorders: a general population study. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2011;261:447‐56.
    1. Lee IM, Shiroma EJ, Lobelo F et al. Effect of physical inactivity on major non‐communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy. Lancet 2012;380:219‐29.
    1. Erickson KI, Hillman C, Stillman CM et al. Physical activity, cognition, and brain outcomes: a review of the 2018 physical activity guidelines. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2019;51:1242‐51.
    1. Eckstrom E, Neukam S, Kalin L et al. Physical activity and healthy aging. Clin Geriatr Med 2020;36:671‐83.
    1. Firth J, Solmi M, Wootton RE et al. A meta‐review of “lifestyle psychiatry”: the role of exercise, smoking, diet and sleep in the prevention and treatment of mental disorders. World Psychiatry 2020;19:360‐80.
    1. van den Brink AC, Brouwer‐Brolsma EM, Berendsen AAM et al. The Mediterranean, Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH), and Mediterranean‐DASH Intervention for Neurodegenerative Delay (MIND) diets are associated with less cognitive decline and a lower risk of Alzheimer's disease – a review. Adv Nutr 2019;10:1040‐65.
    1. Valls‐Pedret C, Sala‐Vila A, Serra‐Mir M et al. Mediterranean diet and age‐related cognitive decline: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med 2015;175:1094‐103.
    1. Arango C, Dragioti E, Solmi M et al. Risk and protective factors for mental disorders beyond genetics: an evidence‐based atlas. World Psychiatry 2021;20:417‐36.
    1. Sokolov AA, Collignon A, Bieler‐Aeschlimann M. Serious video games and virtual reality for prevention and neurorehabilitation of cognitive decline because of aging and neurodegeneration. Curr Opin Neurol 2020;33:239‐48.
    1. Sanches C, Stengel C, Godard J et al. Past, present, and future of non‐invasive brain stimulation approaches to treat cognitive impairment in neurodegenerative diseases: time for a comprehensive critical review. Front Aging Neurosci 2021;12:578339.
    1. Martin DM, Mohan A, Alonzo A et al. A pilot double‐blind randomized controlled trial of cognitive training combined with transcranial direct current stimulation for amnestic mild cognitive impairment. J Alzheimers Dis 2019;71:503‐12.
    1. DeLiema M. Elder fraud and financial exploitation: application of routine activity theory. Gerontologist 2018;58:706‐18.
    1. American Psychiatric Association . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed. Arlington: American Psychiatric Association, 2013.
    1. Sachdev PS, Blacker D, Blazer DG et al. Classifying neurocognitive disorders: the DSM‐5 approach. Nat Rev Neurol 2014;10:634‐42.
    1. McKhann GM, Knopman DS, Chertkow H et al. The diagnosis of dementia due to Alzheimer's disease: recommendations from the National Institute on Aging‐Alzheimer's Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement 2011;7:263‐9.
    1. Albert MS, DeKosky ST, Dickson D et al. The diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer's disease: recommendations from the National Institute on Aging‐Alzheimer's Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer's Disease. Alzheimers Dement 2011;7:270‐9.
    1. American Psychiatric Association . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed. Washington: American Psychiatric Association, 1994.
    1. Winblad B, Palmer K, Kivipelto M et al. Mild cognitive impairment – beyond controversies, towards a consensus: report of the International Working Group on Mild Cognitive Impairment. J Intern Med 2004;256:240‐6.
    1. Jessen F, Amariglio RE, van Boxtel M et al. A conceptual framework for research on subjective cognitive decline in preclinical Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement 2014;10:844‐52.
    1. Henry JD, von Hippel W, Molenberghs P et al. Clinical assessment of social cognitive function in neurological disorders. Nat Rev Neurol 2016;12:28‐39.
    1. Villemagne VL, Burnham S, Bourgeat P et al. Amyloid β deposition, neurodegeneration, and cognitive decline in sporadic Alzheimer's disease: a prospective cohort study. Lancet Neurol 2013;12:357‐67.
    1. Launer LJ. Counting dementia: there is no one “best” way. Alzheimers Dement 2011;7:10‐4.
    1. Nichols E, Vos T. The estimation of the global prevalence of dementia from 1990‐2019 and forecasted prevalence through 2050: an analysis for the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study 2019. Alzheimers Dement 2021;17:e051496.
    1. Wu YT, Beiser AS, Breteler MMB et al. The changing prevalence and incidence of dementia over time – current evidence. Nat Rev Neurol 2017;13:327‐39.
    1. Gao S, Burney HN, Callahan CM et al. Incidence of dementia and Alzheimer disease over time: a meta‐analysis. J Am Geriatr Soc 2019;67:1361‐9.
    1. Sachdev PS, Lipnicki DM, Kochan NA et al. The prevalence of mild cognitive impairment in diverse geographical and ethnocultural regions: the COSMIC Collaboration. PLoS One 2015;10:e0142388.
    1. Livingston G, Huntley J, Sommerlad A et al. Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2020 report of the Lancet Commission. Lancet 2020;396:413‐46.
    1. Grande G, Qiu C, Fratiglioni L. Prevention of dementia in an ageing world: evidence and biological rationale. Ageing Res Rev 2020;64:101045.
    1. Hachinski V, Ganten D, Lackland D et al. Implementing the Proclamation of Stroke and Potentially Preventable Dementias. Int J Stroke 2018;13:780‐6.
    1. Kivipelto M, Solomon A, Ahtiluoto S et al. The Finnish Geriatric Intervention Study to Prevent Cognitive Impairment and Disability (FINGER): study design and progress. Alzheimers Dement 2013;9:657‐65.
    1. Solomon A, Turunen H, Ngandu T et al. Effect of the apolipoprotein E genotype on cognitive change during a multidomain lifestyle intervention: a subgroup analysis of a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Neurol 2018;75:462‐70.
    1. Andrieu S, Guyonnet S, Coley N et al. Effect of long‐term omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation with or without multidomain intervention on cognitive function in elderly adults with memory complaints (MAPT): a randomised, placebo‐controlled trial. Lancet Neurol 2017;16:377‐89.
    1. van Charante EPM, Richard E, Eurelings LS et al. Effectiveness of a 6‐year multidomain vascular care intervention to prevent dementia (preDIVA): a cluster‐randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2016;388:797‐805.
    1. Kivipelto M, Mangialasche F, Snyder HM et al. World‐Wide FINGERS Network: a global approach to risk reduction and prevention of dementia. Alzheimers Dement 2020;16:1078‐94.
    1. Heffernan M, Andrews G, Fiatarone Singh MA et al. Maintain your brain: protocol of a 3‐year randomized controlled trial of a personalized multi‐modal digital health intervention to prevent cognitive decline among community dwelling 55 to 77 year olds. J Alzheimers Dis 2019;70:S221‐37.
    1. Kivipelto M, Mangialasche F, Ngandu T. Lifestyle interventions to prevent cognitive impairment, dementia and Alzheimer disease. Nat Rev Neurol 2018;14:653‐66.
    1. Alexopoulos GS, Jeste DV, Chung H et al. The expert consensus guideline series. Treatment of dementia and its behavioral disturbances. Introduction: methods, commentary, and summary. Postgrad Med 2005;Spec No:6‐22.
    1. Lanctôt KL, Amatniek J, Ancoli‐Israel S et al. Neuropsychiatric signs and symptoms of Alzheimer's disease: new treatment paradigms. Alzheimers Dement 2017;3:440‐9.
    1. Zhao QF, Tan L, Wang HF et al. The prevalence of neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer's disease: systematic review and meta‐analysis. J Affect Disord 2016;190:264‐71.
    1. Cummings JL. The Neuropsychiatric Inventory. Assessing psychopathology in dementia patients. Neurology 1997;48(Suppl. 6):10S‐16S.
    1. Monteiro IM, Boksay I, Auer SR et al. Addition of a frequency‐weighted score to the Behavioral Pathology in Alzheimer's Disease Rating Scale: the BEHAVE‐AD‐FW: methodology and reliability. Eur Psychiatry 2001;16:5s‐24s.
    1. Cohen‐Mansfield J, Marx MS, Rosenthal AS. A description of agitation in a nursing home. J Gerontol 1989;44:M77‐84.
    1. Ismail Z, Smith EE, Geda Y et al. Neuropsychiatric symptoms as early manifestations of emergent dementia: provisional diagnostic criteria for mild behavioral impairment. Alzheimers Dement 2016;12:195‐202.
    1. Peters ME, Schwartz S, Han D et al. Neuropsychiatric symptoms as predictors of progression to severe Alzheimer's dementia and death: the Cache County Dementia Progression Study. Am J Psychiatry 2015;172:460‐5.
    1. Brodaty H, Arasaratnam C. Meta‐analysis of nonpharmacological interventions for neuropsychiatric symptoms of dementia. Am J Psychiatry 2012;169:946‐53.
    1. Abraha I, Rimland JM, Trotta FM et al. Systematic review of systematic reviews of non‐pharmacological interventions to treat behavioural disturbances in older patients with dementia. The SENATOR‐OnTop series. BMJ Open 2017;7:e012759.
    1. Yunusa I, Rashid N, Abler V et al. Comparative efficacy, safety, tolerability, and effectiveness of antipsychotics in the treatment of Dementia‐Related Psychosis (DRP): a systematic literature review. J Prev Alzheimers Dis 2021;8:520‐33.
    1. Le C, Finger E. Pharmacotherapy for neuropsychiatric symptoms in frontotemporal dementia. CNS Drugs 2021;35:1081‐96.
    1. Chu CS, Yang FC, Tseng PT et al. Treatment efficacy and acceptability of pharmacotherapies for dementia with Lewy bodies: a systematic review and network meta‐analysis. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2021;96:104474.
    1. Chin KS, Teodorczuk A, Watson R. Dementia with Lewy bodies: challenges in the diagnosis and management. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2019;53:291‐303.
    1. Taylor JP, McKeith IG, Burn DJ et al. New evidence on the management of Lewy body dementia. Lancet Neurol 2020;19:157‐69.
    1. Sugawara Kikuchi Y, Shimizu T. Aripiprazole for the treatment of psychotic symptoms in patients with dementia with Lewy bodies: a case series. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2019;15:543‐7.
    1. Lang L, Clifford A, Wei L et al. Prevalence and determinants of undetected dementia in the community: a systematic literature review and a meta‐analysis. BMJ Open 2017;7:e011146.
    1. World Health Organization . Global action plan on the public health response to dementia 2017‐2025. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2017.
    1. Low LF, McGrath M, Swaffer K et al. Communicating a diagnosis of dementia: a systematic mixed studies review of attitudes and practices of health practitioners. Dementia 2019;18:2856‐905.
    1. Norman AL, Woodard JL, Calamari JE et al. The fear of Alzheimer's disease: mediating effects of anxiety on subjective memory complaints. Aging Ment Health 2020;24:308‐14.
    1. Rewerska‐Juśko M, Rejdak K. Social stigma of people with dementia. J Alzheimers Dis 2020;78:1339‐43.
    1. Swaffer K. Dementia and prescribed dis‐engagement. Dementia 2015;14:3‐6.
    1. World Health Organization . Global status report on the public health response to dementia. .
    1. Barbarino P, Lynch C, Bliss A et al. From plan to impact III: Maintaining dementia as a priority in unprecedented times. London: Alzheimer's Disease International, 2020.
    1. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation (ASPE) . Examining models of dementia care: final report. August 31, 2016. .
    1. World Health Organization . The global dementia observatory reference guide. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2018.
    1. Huang Y, Mucke L. Alzheimer mechanisms and therapeutic strategies. Cell 2012;148:1204‐22.
    1. Scheltens P, De Strooper B, Kivipelto M et al. Alzheimer's disease. Lancet 2021;397:1577‐90.
    1. Busche MA, Hyman BT. Synergy between amyloid‐β and tau in Alzheimer's disease. Nat Neurosci 2020;23:1183‐93.
    1. Peng C, Trojanowski JQ, Lee VMY. Protein transmission in neurodegenerative disease. Nat Rev Neurol 2020;16:199‐212.
    1. Jack CR Jr, Bennett DA, Blennow K et al. NIA‐AA Research Framework: toward a biological definition of Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement 2018;14:535‐62.
    1. Jack CR Jr, Knopman DS, Jagust WJ et al. Tracking pathophysiological processes in Alzheimer's disease: an updated hypothetical model of dynamic biomarkers. Lancet Neurol 2013;12:207‐16.
    1. Sachdev PS. Developing robust biomarkers for vascular cognitive disorders: adding “V” to the AT(N) research framework. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2020;33:148‐55.
    1. Hampel H, Shaw LM, Aisen P et al. State‐of‐the‐art of lumbar puncture and its place in the journey of patients with Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement 2022;18:159‐77.
    1. Klunk WE, Engler H, Nordberg A et al. Imaging brain amyloid in Alzheimer's disease with Pittsburgh Compound‐B. Ann Neurol 2004;55:306‐19.
    1. Harada R, Okamura N, Furumoto S et al. 18F‐THK5351: a novel PET radiotracer for imaging neurofibrillary pathology in Alzheimer Disease. J Nucl Med 2016;57:208‐14.
    1. Janelidze S, Teunissen CE, Zetterberg H et al. Head‐to‐head comparison of 8 plasma amyloid‐β 42/40 assays in Alzheimer Disease. JAMA Neurol 2021;78:1375‐82.
    1. Blennow K. Phenotyping Alzheimer's disease with blood tests. Science 2021;373:626‐8.
    1. Van Cauwenberghe C, Van Broeckhoven C, Sleegers K. The genetic landscape of Alzheimer disease: clinical implications and perspectives. Genet Med 2016;18:421‐30.
    1. de Rojas I, Moreno‐Grau S, Tesi N et al. Common variants in Alzheimer's disease and risk stratification by polygenic risk scores. Nat Commun 2021;12:3417.
    1. Budd Haeberlain S, Aisen PS, Barkhof F et al. Two randomized phase 3 studies of aducanumab in early Alzheimer's Disease. J Prev Alzheimers Dis 2022;9:197‐210.
    1. Selkoe DJ. Treatments for Alzheimer's disease emerge. Science 2021;373:624‐6.
    1. Cavazzoni P. FDA's decision to approve new treatment for Alzheimer's disease. .
    1. Planche V, Villain N. US Food and Drug Administration approval of aducanumab – is amyloid load a valid surrogate end point for Alzheimer Disease clinical trials? JAMA Neurol 2021;78:1307‐8.
    1. Cummings J, Salloway S. Aducanumab: appropriate use recommendations. Alzheimers Dement 2022;18:531‐3.
    1. Gorelick PB, Scuteri A, Black SE et al. Vascular contributions to cognitive impairment and dementia: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2011;42:2672‐713.
    1. Sachdev P, Kalaria R, O'Brien J et al. Diagnostic criteria for vascular cognitive disorders: a VASCOG statement. Alzheimer Assoc Disord 2014;28:206‐18.
    1. Skrobot OA, Black SE, Chen C et al. Progress toward standardized diagnosis of vascular cognitive impairment: guidelines from the Vascular Impairment of Cognition Classification Consensus Study. Alzheimers Dement 2018;14:280‐92.
    1. Lobo A, Launer LJ, Fratiglioni L et al. Prevalence of dementia and major subtypes in Europe: a collaborative study of population‐based cohorts. Neurologic Diseases in the Elderly Research Group. Neurology 2000;54:S4‐9.
    1. Neuropathology Group, Medical Research Council Cognitive Function and Aging Study. Pathological correlates of late‐onset dementia in a multicentre, community‐based population in England and Wales. Lancet 2001;357:169‐75.
    1. Jellinger KA. Pathology and pathogenesis of vascular cognitive impairment – a critical update. Front Aging Neurosci 2013;5:17.
    1. Sachdev PS, Lo JW, Crawford JD et al. STROKOG (stroke and cognition consortium): an international consortium to examine the epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment of neurocognitive disorders in relation to cerebrovascular disease. Alzheimers Dement 2017;7:11‐23.
    1. METACOHORTS Consortium . METACOHORTS for the study of vascular disease and its contribution to cognitive decline and neurodegeneration: an initiative of the Joint Programme for Neurodegenerative Disease Research. Alzheimers Dement 2016;12:1235‐49.
    1. Corriveau RA, Bosetti F, Emr M et al. The Science of Vascular Contributions to Cognitive Impairment and Dementia (VCID): a framework for advancing research priorities in the cerebrovascular biology of cognitive decline. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2016;36:281‐8.
    1. McKeith IG, Boeve BF, Dickson DW et al. Diagnosis and management of dementia with Lewy bodies: fourth consensus report of the DLB Consortium. Neurology 2017;89:88‐100.
    1. McKeith I, O'Brien J, Walker Z et al. Sensitivity and specificity of dopamine transporter imaging with 123I‐FP‐CIT SPECT in dementia with Lewy bodies: a phase III, multicentre study. Lancet Neurol 2007;6:305‐13.
    1. Boeve BF, Silber MH, Ferman TJ et al. Clinicopathologic correlations in 172 cases of rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder with or without a coexisting neurologic disorder. Sleep Med 2013;14:754‐62.
    1. Chia R, Sabir MS, Bandres‐Ciga S et al. Genome sequencing analysis identifies new loci associated with Lewy body dementia and provides insights into its genetic architecture. Nat Genet 2021;53:294‐303.
    1. Stinton C, McKeith I, Taylor JP et al. Pharmacological management of Lewy body dementia: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Am J Psychiatry 2015;172:731‐42.
    1. Goldman JG, Goetz CG, Brandabur M et al. Effects of dopaminergic medications on psychosis and motor function in dementia with Lewy bodies. Mov Disord 2008;23:2248‐50.
    1. Bang J, Spina S, Miller BL. Frontotemporal dementia. Lancet 2015;386:1672‐82.
    1. Ducharme S, Dols A, Laforce R et al. Recommendations to distinguish behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia from psychiatric disorders. Brain 2020;143:1632‐50.
    1. Vieira RT, Caixeta L, Machado S et al. Epidemiology of early‐onset dementia: a review of the literature. Clin Pract Epidemiol Ment Health 2013;9:88‐95.
    1. Galimberti D, Reif A, Dell'Osso B et al. C9ORF72 hexanucleotide repeat expansion is a rare cause of schizophrenia. Neurobiol Aging 2014;35:1214.e7‐10.
    1. Galimberti D, Reif A, Dell'Osso B et al. C9ORF72 hexanucleotide repeat expansion as a rare cause of bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord 2014;16:448‐9.
    1. Swift IJ, Sogorb‐Esteve A, Heller C et al. Fluid biomarkers in frontotemporal dementia: past, present and future. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2021;92:204‐15.
    1. Ossenkoppele R, Pijnenburg YAL, Perry DC et al. The behavioural/dysexecutive variant of Alzheimer's disease: clinical, neuroimaging and pathological features. Brain J Neurol 2015;138:2732‐49.
    1. Nelson PT, Dickson DW, Trojanowski JQ et al. Limbic‐predominant age‐related TDP‐43 encephalopathy (LATE): consensus working group report. Brain 2019;142:1503‐27.
    1. Boyle PA, Yang J, Yu L et al. Varied effects of age‐related neuropathologies on the trajectory of late life cognitive decline. Brain 2017;140:804‐12.
    1. Oh ES, Fong TG, Hshieh TT et al. Delirium in older persons: advances in diagnosis and treatment. JAMA 2017;318:1161‐74.
    1. Robinson TN, Raeburn CD, Tran ZV et al. Motor subtypes of postoperative delirium in older adults. Arch Surg 2011;146:295‐300.
    1. Maldonado JR. Delirium pathophysiology: an updated hypothesis of the etiology of acute brain failure. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2018;33:1428‐57.
    1. Jenssen S. Electroencephalogram in the dementia workup. Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen 2005;20:159‐66.
    1. de la Cruz M, Fan J, Yennu S et al. The frequency of missed delirium in patients referred to palliative care in a comprehensive cancer center. Support Care Cancer 2015;23:2427‐33.
    1. De J, Wand APF. Delirium screening: a systematic review of delirium screening tools in hospitalized patients. Gerontologist 2015;55:1079‐99.
    1. Inouye SK, van Dyck CH, Alessi CA et al. Clarifying confusion: the confusion assessment method. A new method for detection of delirium. Ann Intern Med 1990;113:941‐8.
    1. Maldonado J. Neuropathogenesis of delirium: review of current etiologic theories and common pathways. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2013;21:1190‐222.
    1. Karlidag R, Unal S, Sezer OH et al. The role of oxidative stress in postoperative delirium. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2006;28:418‐23.
    1. Cunningham C. Systemic inflammation and delirium: important co‐factors in the progression of dementia. Biochem Soc Trans 2011;39:945‐53.
    1. Smolensky MH, Hermida RC, Reinberg A et al. Circadian disruption: new clinical perspective of disease pathology and basis for chronotherapeutic intervention. Chronobiol Int 2016;33:1101‐19.
    1. Bush SH, Marchington KL, Agar M et al. Quality of clinical practice guidelines in delirium: a systematic appraisal. BMJ Open 2017;7:e013809.
    1. National Clinical Guideline Centre . Delirium: diagnosis, prevention and management. .
    1. American Geriatrics Society Expert Panel on Postoperative Delirium in Older Adults. American Geriatrics Society abstracted clinical practice guideline for postoperative delirium in older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc 2015;63:142‐50.
    1. Neufeld KJ, Yue J, Robinson TN et al. Antipsychotic medication for prevention and treatment of delirium in hospitalized adults: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. J Am Geriatr Soc 2016;64:705‐14.
    1. Herrman H, Patel V, Kieling C et al. Time for united action on depression: a Lancet – World Psychiatric Association Commission. Lancet 2022;399:957‐1022.
    1. Reynolds CF, Cuijpers P, Patel V et al. Early intervention to reduce the global health and economic burden of major depression in older adults. Annu Rev Public Health 2012;33:123‐35.
    1. Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 Collaborators . Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990‐2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet 2015;386:743‐800.
    1. Gallo JJ, Morales KH, Bogner HR et al. Long term effect of depression care management on mortality in older adults: follow‐up of cluster randomized clinical trial in primary care. BMJ 2013;346:f2570.
    1. Diniz BS, Machado‐Vieira R, Forlenza OV. Lithium and neuroprotection: translational evidence and implications for the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders. Neuropsychiatr Treat 2013;9:493‐500.
    1. Verduijn J, Milaneschi Y, van Hemert AM et al. Clinical staging of major depressive disorder: an empirical exploration. J Clin Psychiatry 2015;76:1200‐8.
    1. Ruhé HG, van Rooijen G, Spijker J et al. Staging methods for treatment resistant depression. A systematic review. J Affect Disord 2012;137:35‐45.
    1. Maj M, Stein DJ, Parker G et al. The clinical characterization of the adult patient with depression aimed at personalization of management. World Psychiatry 2020;19:269‐93.
    1. Lustberg L, Reynolds CF. Depression and insomnia: questions of cause and effect. Sleep Med Rev 2000;4:253‐62.
    1. Diniz BS, Sibille E, Ding Y et al. Plasma biosignature and brain pathology related to persistent cognitive impairment in late‐life depression. Mol Psychiatry 2015;20:594‐601.
    1. Diniz BS, Butters MA, Albert SM et al. Late‐life depression and risk of vascular dementia and Alzheimer's disease: systematic review and meta‐analysis of community‐based cohort studies. Br J Psychiatry 2013;202:329‐35.
    1. Nedergaard M, Goldman SA. Glymphatic failure as a final common pathway to dementia. Science 2020;370:50‐6.
    1. McCall WV, Black CG. The link between suicide and insomnia: theoretical mechanisms. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2013;15:389.
    1. Cuijpers P, Beekman ATF, Reynolds CF. Preventing depression: a global priority. JAMA 2012;307:1033‐4.
    1. van Zoonen K, Buntrock C, Ebert DD et al. Preventing the onset of major depressive disorder: a meta‐analytic review of psychological interventions. Int J Epidemiol 2014;43:318‐29.
    1. Dias A, Azariah F, Anderson SJ et al. Effect of a lay counselor intervention on prevention of major depression in older adults living in low‐ and middle‐in­come countries: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry 2019;76:13‐20.
    1. Orgeta V, Brede J, Livingston G. Behavioural activation for depression in older people: systematic review and meta‐analysis. Br J Psychiatry 2017;211:274‐9.
    1. Buysse DJ, Germain A, Moul DE et al. Efficacy of brief behavioral treatment for chronic insomnia in older adults. Arch Intern Med 2011;171:887‐95.
    1. Okereke OI, Vyas CM, Mischoulon D et al. Effect of long‐term supplementation with marine omega‐3 fatty acids vs placebo on risk of depression or clinically relevant depressive symptoms and on change in mood scores: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2021;326:2385‐94.
    1. Okereke OI, Reynolds CF 3rd, Mischoulon D et al. Effect of long‐term vitamin D3 supplementation vs placebo on risk of depression or clinically relevant depressive symptoms and on change in mood scores: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2020;324:471‐80.
    1. Lopes‐Paciencia S, Saint‐Germain E, Rowell MC et al. The senescence‐associated secretory phenotype and its regulation. Cytokine 2019;117:15‐22.
    1. American Psychological Association . Clinical practice guideline for the treatment of depression across three age cohorts, 2019. .
    1. Cuijpers P, Karyotaki E, Pot AM et al. Managing depression in older age: psychological interventions. Maturitas 2014;79:160‐9.
    1. Nelson JC, Craig Nelson J, Delucchi K et al. Efficacy of second generation antidepressants in late‐life depression: a meta‐analysis of the evidence. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2008;16:558‐67.
    1. Reynolds CF, Dew MA, Pollock BG et al. Maintenance treatment of major depression in old age. N Engl J Med 2006;354:1130‐8.
    1. Marshe VS, Maciukiewicz M, Rej S et al. Norepinephrine transporter gene variants and remission from depression with venlafaxine treatment in older adults. Am J Psychiatry 2017;174:468‐75.
    1. Chang DD, Eyreeuro HA, Abbott R et al. Pharmacogenetic guidelines and decision support tools for depression treatment: application to late‐life. Pharmacogenomics 2018;19:1269‐84.
    1. Lenze EJ, Mulsant BH, Blumberger DM et al. Efficacy, safety, and tolerability of augmentation pharmacotherapy with aripiprazole for treatment‐resistant depression in late life: a randomised, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial. Lancet 2015;386:2404‐12.
    1. Cristancho P, Lenard E, Lenze EJ et al. Optimizing Outcomes of Treatment‐Resistant Depression in Older Adults (OPTIMUM): study design and treatment characteristics of the first 396 participants randomized. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2019;27:1138‐52.
    1. Alexopoulos GS, Raue PJ, Banerjee S et al. Comparing the streamlined psychotherapy “Engage” with problem‐solving therapy in late‐life major depression. A randomized clinical trial. Mol Psychiatry 2021;26:5180‐9.
    1. Prigerson HG, Boelen PA, Xu J et al. Validation of the new DSM‐5‐TR criteria for prolonged grief disorder and the PG‐13‐Revised (PG‐13‐R) scale. World Psychiatry 2021;20:96‐106.
    1. Shear MK, Reynolds CF 3rd, Simon NM et al. Optimizing treatment of complicated grief. JAMA Psychiatry 2016;73:685‐94.
    1. Archer J, Bower P, Gilbody S et al. Collaborative care for depression and anxiety problems. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;10:CD006525.
    1. Unützer J, Katon W, Callahan CM et al. Collaborative care management of late‐life depression in the primary care setting: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2002;288:2836‐45.
    1. Bruce ML, Ten Have TR, Reynolds CF 3rd et al. Reducing suicidal ideation and depressive symptoms in depressed older primary care patients. JAMA 2004;291:1081‐91.
    1. Chibanda D, Weiss HA, Verhey R et al. Effect of a primary care‐based psychological intervention on symptoms of common mental disorders in Zimbabwe. JAMA 2016;316:2618‐26.
    1. Patel V, Weiss HA, Chowdhary N et al. Effectiveness of an intervention led by lay health counsellors for depressive and anxiety disorders in primary care in Goa, India (MANAS): a cluster randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2010;376:2086‐95.
    1. Turecki G, Brent DA. Suicide and suicidal behaviour. Lancet 2016;387:1227‐39.
    1. Kapur N, Ibrahim S, While D et al. Mental health service changes, organisational factors, and patient suicide in England in 1997‐2012: a before‐and‐after study. Lancet Psychiatry 2016;3:526‐34.
    1. Simon GE, Johnson E, Lawrence JM et al. Predicting suicide attempts and suicide deaths following outpatient visits using electronic health records. Am J Psychiatry 2018;175:951‐60.
    1. Gibbons RD, Kupfer D, Frank E et al. Development of a computerized adaptive test suicide scale – the CAT‐SS. J Clin Psychiatry 2017;78:1376‐82.
    1. Grunebaum MF, Galfalvy HC, Choo TH et al. Ketamine for rapid reduction of suicidal thoughts in major depression: a midazolam‐controlled randomized clinical trial. Am J Psychiatry 2018;175:327‐35.
    1. Szanto K, Galfalvy H, Keilp J et al. Pathways to late‐life suicidal behavior: cluster analysis and predictive validation. Biol Psychiatry 2017;81:S353.
    1. Torous J, Bucci S, Bell IH et al. The growing field of digital psychiatry: current evidence and the future of apps, social media, chatbots, and virtual reality. World Psychiatry 2021;20:318‐35.
    1. Bleuler M. A 23‐year longitudinal study of 208 schizophrenics and impressions in regard to the nature of schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Res 1968;6:3‐12.
    1. Rabins PV, Black B, German P et al. The prevalence of psychiatric disorders in elderly residents of public housing. J Gerontol Biol Sci Med Sci 1996;51:M319‐24.
    1. Cohen CI, Cohen GD, Blank K et al. Schizophrenia and older adults. An overview: directions for research and policy. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2000;8:19‐28.
    1. Stafford J, Howard R, Kirkbride JB. The incidence of very late‐onset psychotic disorders: a systematic review and meta‐analysis, 1960‐2016. Psychol Med 2018;48:1775‐86.
    1. Purohit DP, Perl DP, Haroutunian V et al. Alzheimer disease and related neurodegenerative diseases in elderly patients with schizophrenia: a postmortem neuropathologic study of 100 cases. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998;55:205‐11.
    1. Heaton RK, Gladsjo JA, Palmer BW et al. Stability and course of neuropsychological deficits in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001;58:24‐32.
    1. Maltais JR, Gagnon G, Garant MP et al. Correlation between age and MMSE in schizophrenia. Int Psychogeriatr 2015;27:1769‐75.
    1. Jeste DV, Twamley EW, Eyler Zorrilla LT et al. Aging and outcome in schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2003;107:336‐43.
    1. Meesters PD, Comijs HC, de Haan L et al. Symptomatic remission and associated factors in a catchment area based population of older patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2011;126:237‐44.
    1. Auslander LA, Jeste DV. Sustained remission of schizophrenia among community‐dwelling older outpatients. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:1490‐3.
    1. Palmer BW, Martin AS, Depp CA et al. Wellness within illness: happiness in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2014;159:151‐6.
    1. Edmonds EC, Martin AS, Palmer BW et al. Positive mental health in schizophrenia and healthy comparison groups: relationships with overall health and biomarkers. Aging Ment Health 2018;22:354‐62.
    1. McCarthy P, Benuskova L, Franz E. The age‐related posterior‐anterior shift as revealed by voxelwise analysis of functional brain networks. Front Aging Neurosci 2014;6:301.
    1. Kasckow J, Montross L, Golshan S et al. Suicidality in middle aged and older patients with schizophrenia and depressive symptoms: relationship to functioning and quality of life. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2007;22:1223‐8.
    1. Cohen CI, Abdallah CG, Diwan S. Suicide attempts and associated factors in older adults with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2010;119:253‐7.
    1. Montross LP, Kasckow J, Golshan S et al. Suicidal ideation and suicide attempts among middle‐aged and older patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders and concurrent subsyndromal depression. J Nerv Ment Dis 2008;196:884‐90.
    1. Harris K, Gooding P, Peters S et al. Investigating the perceived impact of psychosis on suicidal thoughts and behaviors. Schizophr Bull Open 2020;1:sgaa038.
    1. Tarrier N, Taylor K, Gooding P. Cognitive‐behavioral interventions to reduce suicide behavior: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Behav Modif 2008;32:77‐108.
    1. Pompili M, Baldessarini RJ, Forte A et al. Do atypical antipsychotics have antisuicidal effects? A hypothesis‐generating overview. Int J Mol Sci 2016;17:1700.
    1. Zisook S, Kasckow JW, Lanouette NM et al. Augmentation with citalopram for suicidal ideation in middle‐aged and older outpatients with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder who have subthreshold depressive symptoms: a randomized controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry 2010;71:915‐22.
    1. Riecher‐Rossler A, Rossler W, Forstl H et al. Late‐onset schizophrenia and late paraphrenia. Schizophr Bull 1995;21:345‐54.
    1. Roth M, Kay DW. Late paraphrenia: a variant of schizophrenia manifest in late life or an organic clinical syndrome? A review of recent evidence. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1998;13:775‐84.
    1. American Psychiatric Association . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 3rd ed. Washington: American Psychiatric Association, 1981.
    1. Spitzer RL, Gibbon M, Skodol AE et al. DSM‐III‐R case book. Washington: American Psychiatric Press, 1989.
    1. Howard R. Late‐onset schizophrenia and very‐late‐onset schizophrenia‐like psychosis: an international consensus. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157:172‐8.
    1. Vahia IV, Palmer BW, Depp C et al. Is late‐onset schizophrenia a subtype of schizophrenia? Acta Psychiatr Scand 2010;122:414‐26.
    1. World Health Organization . ICD‐11: International Classification of Diseases 11th revision. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2022.
    1. Jeste DV, Symonds LL, Harris MJ et al. Nondementia nonpraecox dementia praecox? Late‐onset schizophrenia. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 1997;5:302‐17.
    1. Weiser M, Levi L, Zamora D et al. Effect of adjunctive estradiol on schizophrenia among women of childbearing age: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry 2019;76:1009‐17.
    1. Stroup TS, Olfson M, Huang C et al. Age‐specific prevalence and incidence of dementia diagnoses among older US adults with schizophrenia. JAMA Psychiatry 2021;78:632‐41.
    1. Jin H, Shih PAB, Golshan S et al. Comparison of longer‐term safety and effectiveness of 4 atypical antipsychotics in patients over age 40. J Clin Psychiatry 2013;74:10‐8.
    1. Uchida H, Mamo DC, Mulsant BH et al. Increased antipsychotic sensitivity in elderly patients: evidence and mechanisms. J Clin Psychiatry 2009;70:397‐405.
    1. Sable JA, Jeste DV. Antipsychotic treatment for late‐life schizophrenia. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2002;4:299‐306.
    1. Jeste DV. Tardive dyskinesia in older patients. J Clin Psychiatry 2000;61:27‐32.
    1. Blanchet PJ. A focused update on tardive dyskinesia. Can J Neurol Sci 2020;47:747‐55.
    1. American Psychiatric Association . The American Psychiatric Association practice guideline for the treatment of patients with schizophrenia, 3rd ed. Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing, 2020.
    1. Bartels SJ, DiMilia PR, Fortuna KL et al. Integrated care for older adults with serious mental illness and medical comorbidity: evidence‐based models and future research directions. Clin Geriatr Med 2020;36:341‐52.
    1. Granholm E, McQuaid JR, McClure FS et al. Randomized controlled trial of cognitive behavioral social skills training for older people with schizophrenia: 12‐month follow‐up. J Clin Psychiatry 2007;68:730‐7.
    1. Granholm E, Holden J, Link PC et al. Randomized controlled trial of cognitive behavioral social skills training for older consumers with schizophrenia: defeatist performance attitudes and functional outcome. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2013;21:251‐62.
    1. Patterson TL, Mausbach BT, McKibbin C et al. Functional adaptation skills training (FAST): a randomized trial of a psychosocial intervention for middle‐aged and older patients with chronic psychotic disorders. Schizophr Res 2006;86:291‐9.
    1. Patterson TL, Bucardo J, McKibbin CL et al. Development and pilot testing of a new psychosocial intervention for older Latinos with chronic psychosis. Schizophr Bull 2005;31:922‐30.
    1. Pratt SI, Bartels SJ, Mueser KT et al. Helping older people experience success: an integrated model of psychosocial rehabilitation and health care management for older adults with serious mental illness. Am J Psychiatr Rehabil 2008;11:41‐60.
    1. Bartels SJ, Pratt SI, Mueser KT et al. Long‐term outcomes of a randomized trial of integrated skills training and preventive health care for older adults with serious mental illness. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2014;22:1251‐61.
    1. Twamley EW, Vella L, Burton CZ et al. The efficacy of supported employment for middle‐aged and older people with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2012;135:100‐4.
    1. Twamley EW, Thomas KR, Burton CZ et al. Compensatory cognitive training for people with severe mental illnesses in supported employment: a ran­domized controlled trial. Schizophr Res 2019;203:41‐8.
    1. Depp CA, Mausbach B, Granholm E et al. Mobile interventions for severe mental illness. J Nerv Ment Dis 2010;198:715‐21.
    1. Regier DA, Farmer ME, Rae DS et al. Comorbidity of mental disorders with alcohol and other drug abuse. Results from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) Study. JAMA 1990;264:2511‐8.
    1. Lawrie SM, Parsons C, Patrick J et al. A controlled trial of general practitioners' attitudes to patients with schizophrenia. Health Bull Edinb 1996;54:201‐3.
    1. Coleman KJ, Stewart C, Waitzfelder BE et al. Racial‐ethnic differences in psychiatric diagnoses and treatment across 11 health care systems in the Mental Health Research Network. Psychiatr Serv 2016;67:749‐57.
    1. Palinkas LA, Criado V, Fuentes D et al. Unmet needs for services for older adults with mental illness: comparison of views of different stakeholder groups. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2007;15:530‐40.
    1. Maddox GL, Atchley RC, Evans JG et al (eds). The encyclopedia of aging: a com­prehensive resource in gerontology and geriatrics, 3rd ed. New York: Springer, 2013.
    1. Kapelner A, Bleich J, Levine A et al. Evaluating the effectiveness of personalized medicine with software. Front Big Data 2021;4:572532.
    1. Kuerbis A, Sacco P, Blazer DG et al. Substance abuse among older adults. Clin Geriatr Med 2014;30:629‐54.
    1. Mavamdadi S, Oslin DW. Substance related and addictive disorders. In: Steffens DC, Blazer DG, Thakur ME (eds). The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of geriatric psychiatry. Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing, 2015:459‐90.
    1. Widlitz M, Marin DB. Substance abuse in older adults. An overview. Geriatrics 2002;57:29‐34.
    1. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime . INCB annual report 2020. .
    1. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime . World drug report 2018. .
    1. US Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration . Results from the 2018 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. .
    1. Chhatre S, Cook R, Mallik E et al. Trends in substance use admissions among older adults. BMC Health Serv Res 2017;17:584.
    1. Fick DM, Cooper JW, Wade WE et al. Updating the Beers criteria for potentially inappropriate medication use in older adults: results of a US consensus panel of experts. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:2716‐24.
    1. Blazer DG, Wu LT. Nonprescription use of pain relievers by middle‐aged and elderly community‐living adults: National Survey on Drug Use and Health. J Am Geriatr Soc 2009;57:1252‐7.
    1. Merrick EL, Horgan CM, Hodgkin D et al. Unhealthy drinking patterns in older adults: prevalence and associated characteristics. J Am Geriatr Soc 2008;56:214‐23.
    1. Moore AA, Karno MP, Grella CE et al. Alcohol, tobacco, and nonmedical drug use in older U.S. adults: data from the 2001/02 national epidemiologic survey of alcohol and related conditions. J Am Geriatr Soc 2009;57:2275‐81.
    1. Bush K, Kivlahan DR, McDonell MB et al. The AUDIT alcohol consumption questions (AUDIT‐C): an effective brief screening test for problem drinking. Ambulatory Care Quality Improvement Project (ACQUIP). Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test. Arch Intern Med 1998;158:1789‐95.
    1. Brown RL, Rounds LA. Conjoint screening questionnaires for alcohol and other drug abuse: criterion validity in a primary care practice. Wis Med J 1995;94:135‐40.
    1. Kuerbis AN, Hagman BT, Sacco P. Functioning of alcohol use disorders criteria among middle‐aged and older adults: implications for DSM‐5. Subst Use Misuse 2013;48:309‐22.
    1. Fleming MF. Brief physician advice for problem alcohol drinkers. A randomized controlled trial in community‐based primary care practices. JAMA 1997;277:1039‐45.
    1. Miller W, Rollnick S. Motivational interviewing: preparing people for change, 2nd ed. J Healthc Qual 2003;25:46.
    1. Barrick C, Connors GJ. Relapse prevention and maintaining abstinence in older adults with alcohol‐use disorders. Drugs Aging 2002;19:583‐94.
    1. Oslin D, Liberto JG, O'Brien J et al. Naltrexone as an adjunctive treatment for older patients with alcohol dependence. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 1997;5:324‐32.
    1. Ling W, Wesson DR. Clinical efficacy of buprenorphine: comparisons to methadone and placebo. Drug Alcohol Depend 2003;70:S49‐57.
    1. US Department of Health and Human Services . Clinical guidelines for the use of buprenorphine in the treatment of opioid addiction. Rockville: US Department of Health and Human Services, 2013.
    1. Kuerbis A, Sacco P. A review of existing treatments for substance abuse among the elderly and recommendations for future directions. Subst Abuse 2013;7:13‐37.
    1. Alcoholics Anonymous . A.A. around the world. .
    1. Schonfeld L, Dupree LW. Treatment alternatives for older adults. In: Gurnack AM (ed). Older adults' misuse of alcohol, medicine, and other drugs. New York: Springer, 1997:113‐31.

Source: PubMed

Sponsors en medewerkers

Medische omstandigheden

Geneesmiddelinterventies

3
Abonneren