Effects of Cognitive Training on Executive Functions and Decision-Making in Adolescent Female Volleyball Players

July 3, 2026 updated by: Muharrem Gökhan Beydağı, Firat University

Effects of a Short-Term Cognitive Training Programme on Executive Functions and On-Court Decision-Making Performance in Adolescent Female Volleyball Players: A Randomized Controlled Trial

This randomized controlled trial aims to evaluate the effects of a four-week tablet-based cognitive training program on executive functions and on-court decision-making performance in adolescent female volleyball players. Fifty licensed female volleyball players aged 12 to 14 years were randomly assigned to either an intervention group or a control group. The intervention group received cognitive training three times per week in addition to routine volleyball training, while the control group continued routine training only. Executive functions were assessed using the Stroop Test, Trail Making Test-A, Go/No-Go Test, and 2-Back Test. Volleyball-specific decision-making performance was evaluated using a video-based temporal occlusion test. The study investigates whether improvements in executive functions following cognitive training transfer to sport-specific decision-making performance.

Study Overview

Status

Completed

Conditions

Intervention / Treatment

Detailed Description

Executive functions, including inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and attentional control, play an important role in sports requiring rapid perception and decision-making, such as volleyball. Although previous studies have shown that cognitive training can improve executive functions, evidence regarding the transfer of these improvements to sport-specific performance remains inconsistent.

The purpose of this randomized controlled study is to investigate the effects of a short-term tablet-based cognitive training program on executive functions and volleyball-specific on-court decision-making performance in adolescent female volleyball players.

Fifty licensed female volleyball players aged 12 to 14 years participated in the study. Participants were randomly allocated to an intervention group or a control group. The intervention group completed a four-week cognitive training program consisting of three supervised sessions per week (20-30 minutes per session) in addition to routine volleyball training. The control group continued routine volleyball training without additional cognitive training.

Primary assessments included executive function measures obtained using the Stroop Test, Trail Making Test-A (TMT-A), Go/No-Go Test, and 2-Back Test. Volleyball-specific decision-making performance was evaluated using a video-based temporal occlusion paradigm, with decision-making accuracy and response time recorded before and after the intervention.

The study aims to determine whether short-term cognitive training improves executive function performance (near transfer) and whether these cognitive improvements translate into enhanced sport-specific decision-making performance (far transfer) in adolescent female volleyball players.

Study Type

Interventional

Enrollment (Actual)

50

Phase

  • Not Applicable

Contacts and Locations

This section provides the contact details for those conducting the study, and information on where this study is being conducted.

Study Locations

  • Turkey (Türkiye)
    • Merkez
      • Elâzığ, Merkez, Turkey (Türkiye), 23200
        • Firat University

Participation Criteria

Researchers look for people who fit a certain description, called eligibility criteria. Some examples of these criteria are a person's general health condition or prior treatments.

Eligibility Criteria

Ages Eligible for Study

  • Child

Accepts Healthy Volunteers

Yes

Description

Inclusion Criteria:

  • Female volleyball players aged 12 to 14 years.
  • Licensed volleyball players with at least 1 year of playing experience.
  • Regular participation in volleyball training during the previous 6 months.
  • Written informed consent obtained from both participants and their parents/legal guardians.

Exclusion Criteria:

  • History of neurological or psychiatric disorders.
  • Visual or hearing impairment that could affect cognitive testing.
  • Serious musculoskeletal injury within the previous 6 months.
  • Previous participation in a structured cognitive training program.
  • Injury during the study period or incomplete participation in the assessment procedures.

Study Plan

This section provides details of the study plan, including how the study is designed and what the study is measuring.

How is the study designed?

Design Details

  • Primary Purpose: Prevention
  • Allocation: Randomized
  • Interventional Model: Parallel Assignment
  • Masking: None (Open Label)

Arms and Interventions

Participant Group / Arm
Intervention / Treatment
Experimental: Cognitive Training Group
Participants received a four-week tablet-based cognitive training program (20-30 minutes/session, three sessions/week) in addition to their routine volleyball training.
Behavioral: Tablet-Based Cognitive Training
A structured four-week tablet-based cognitive training program was administered three times per week for approximately 20-30 minutes per session. The program included computerized exercises targeting inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive flexibility, attention, and processing speed using validated cognitive training applications.
Other: Routine Volleyball Training
Participants continued their routine volleyball training according to their regular training schedule.
Active Comparator: Control Group
Participants continued their routine volleyball training without additional cognitive training.
Other: Routine Volleyball Training
Participants continued their routine volleyball training according to their regular training schedule.

What is the study measuring?

Primary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure
Measure Description
Time Frame
Change in Stroop Interference Time
Time Frame: Baseline and Week 4
Change from baseline to Week 4 in Stroop interference time, calculated as the difference between the mean reaction time under incongruent and neutral conditions, measured in milliseconds (ms) using the computerized Stroop Color and Word Test.
Baseline and Week 4
Change in Trail Making Test-A Completion Time
Time Frame: Baseline and Week 4
Change from baseline to Week 4 in the time required to complete the Trail Making Test-A, measured in seconds (s).
Baseline and Week 4
Change in Go/No-Go Reaction Time
Time Frame: Baseline and Week 4
Change from baseline to Week 4 in mean reaction time during the computerized Go/No-Go Test, measured in milliseconds (ms) during correct Go responses.
Baseline and Week 4
Change in 2-Back Accuracy
Time Frame: Baseline and Week 4
Change from baseline to Week 4 in working memory accuracy during the computerized 2-Back Test, measured as percentage of correct responses (%).
Baseline and Week 4
Change in 2-Back Reaction Time
Time Frame: Baseline and Week 4
Change from baseline to Week 4 in mean reaction time during correct responses in the computerized 2-Back Test, measured in milliseconds (ms).
Baseline and Week 4

Secondary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure
Measure Description
Time Frame
Change in On-Court Decision-Making Accuracy
Time Frame: Baseline and Week 4
Change from baseline to Week 4 in volleyball-specific decision-making accuracy assessed using a video-based temporal occlusion test, measured as the number of correct decisions (0-25).
Baseline and Week 4
Change in On-Court Decision-Making Response Time
Time Frame: Baseline and Week 4
Change from baseline to Week 4 in volleyball-specific decision-making response time assessed using a video-based temporal occlusion test, measured in milliseconds (ms).
Baseline and Week 4

Collaborators and Investigators

This is where you will find people and organizations involved with this study.

Sponsor

Firat University

Study record dates

These dates track the progress of study record and summary results submissions to ClinicalTrials.gov. Study records and reported results are reviewed by the National Library of Medicine (NLM) to make sure they meet specific quality control standards before being posted on the public website.

Study Major Dates

Study Start (Actual)

May 2, 2026

Primary Completion (Actual)

June 15, 2026

Study Completion (Actual)

June 15, 2026

Study Registration Dates

First Submitted

June 29, 2026

First Submitted That Met QC Criteria

July 3, 2026

First Posted (Actual)

July 9, 2026

Study Record Updates

Last Update Posted (Actual)

July 9, 2026

Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria

July 3, 2026

Last Verified

July 1, 2026

More Information

Terms related to this study

Keywords

Other Study ID Numbers

  • FU_MGBeydagi_Vole_B_2026/06-29

Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)

Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?

YES

IPD Plan Description

Individual participant data (de-identified) that underlie the results reported in this study will be made available upon reasonable request to the corresponding author. Data will be available beginning 6 months after publication and ending 5 years after publication. Researchers who provide a methodologically sound proposal for achieving the aims of an approved proposal will be granted access after signing a data access agreement.

Drug and device information, study documents

Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product

No

Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product

No

This information was retrieved directly from the website clinicaltrials.gov without any changes. If you have any requests to change, remove or update your study details, please contact register@clinicaltrials.gov. As soon as a change is implemented on clinicaltrials.gov, this will be updated automatically on our website as well.

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