Effects of Park Golf on Working Memory and Prefrontal Cortex Activation in Older Adults

September 2, 2026 updated by: Gwangju Health University

Does Park Golf Affect Working Memory?: An fNIRS-Based Randomized Controlled Trial in Community-Dwelling Older Adults

This study investigates whether a park golf program can improve working memory and prefrontal cortex activity in community-dwelling older adults. A total of 36 older adults (aged 65-85) were randomly assigned to either a park golf group or a health education group. The park golf group participated in a supervised park golf program (2 sessions per week for 4 weeks, 60 minutes per session), while the health education group attended lectures on healthy aging topics such as nutrition and fall prevention on the same schedule. Before and after the intervention, participants completed cognitive and physical assessments, including the Korean Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA-K), the Timed Up and Go test, and a spatial working memory task (N-back) performed while brain activity in the prefrontal cortex was measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), a non-invasive, radiation-free imaging method. The findings may help establish evidence for community-based physical activity programs, such as park golf, as a strategy to support cognitive health in older adults.

Study Overview

Status

Status

Indicates the current recruitment status or the expanded access status.
Recruiting

Conditions

Conditions

The disease, disorder, syndrome, illness, or injury that is being studied. On ClinicalTrials.gov, conditions may also include other health-related issues, such as lifespan, quality of life, and health risks.

Intervention / Treatment

Intervention / Treatment

A process or action that is the focus of a clinical study. Interventions include drugs, medical devices, procedures, vaccines, and other products that are either investigational or already available. Interventions can also include noninvasive approaches, such as education or modifying diet and exercise.

Study Type

Study Type

Describes the nature of a clinical study. Study types include interventional studies (also called clinical trials), observational studies (including patient registries), and expanded access.
Interventional

Enrollment (Estimated)

Enrollment

The number of participants in a clinical study. The "anticipated" enrollment is the target number of participants that the researchers need for the study.
36

Phase

Phase

The stage of a clinical trial studying a drug or biological product, based on definitions developed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The phase is based on the study's objective, the number of participants, and other characteristics. There are five phases: Early Phase 1 (formerly listed as Phase 0), Phase 1, Phase 2, Phase 3, and Phase 4. Not Applicable is used to describe trials without FDA-defined phases, including trials of devices or behavioral interventions.
  • Not Applicable

Contacts and Locations

This section provides the contact details for those conducting the study, and information on where this study is being conducted.

Study Contact

Study Contact

The name and contact information for the person who can answer enrollment questions for a clinical study. Each location where the study is being conducted may also have a specific contact, who may be better able to answer those questions.
  • Name: Eun-Sang Lee, PhD
  • Phone Number: +82 62-958-7525
  • Email: eslee@ghu.ac.kr

Study Locations

  • South Korea
    • Gwangju
      • Gwangju, Gwangju, South Korea, 61161
        • Recruiting
        • Gwangju Health University, Buk-gu Campus, Smart Care Village
        • Contact:

Participation Criteria

Researchers look for people who fit a certain description, called eligibility criteria. Some examples of these criteria are a person's general health condition or prior treatments.

Eligibility Criteria

Eligibility Criteria

The key requirements that people who want to participate in a clinical study must meet or the characteristics they must have. Eligibility criteria consist of both inclusion criteria (which are required for a person to participate in the study) and exclusion criteria (which prevent a person from participating). Types of eligibility criteria include whether a study accepts healthy volunteers, has age or age group requirements, or is limited by sex.

Ages Eligible for Study

  • Older Adult

Accepts Healthy Volunteers

Yes

Description

Inclusion Criteria:

  • Community-dwelling older adults aged 65 to 85 years, living independently (excluding those residing in nursing facilities or hospitalized)
  • Korean version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA-K) score of 23 or higher (normal cognitive function range)
  • Able to walk independently and possess the basic functional capacity required to participate in park golf
  • No experience with park golf, or no regular participation in park golf within the past 6 months
  • Voluntary written informed consent to participate in the study

Exclusion Criteria:

  • History of severe neurological disease (e.g., Parkinson's disease, stroke, dementia) or psychiatric disease (e.g., major depressive disorder, schizophrenia)
  • Scalp disease, skull abnormality, or history of craniotomy that could affect fNIRS measurement
  • Currently taking medications affecting cognitive function (e.g., anticholinergics, antipsychotics)
  • Regular participation in high-intensity exercise programs 3 or more times per week
  • Physician-prescribed restriction on physical activity
  • Severe visual or auditory impairment that would make assessment difficult, even with correction
  • Left-handedness (excluded to control for hemispheric dominance in fNIRS measurement)

Study Plan

This section provides details of the study plan, including how the study is designed and what the study is measuring.

How is the study designed?

Design Details

  • Primary Purpose: Prevention
  • Allocation: Randomized
  • Interventional Model: Parallel Assignment
  • Masking: Single

Arms and Interventions

Participant Group / Arm

Participant Group / Arm

A group or subgroup of participants in a clinical trial that receives a specific intervention/treatment, or no intervention, according to the trial's protocol.
Intervention / Treatment

Intervention / Treatment

A process or action that is the focus of a clinical study. Interventions include drugs, medical devices, procedures, vaccines, and other products that are either investigational or already available. Interventions can also include noninvasive approaches, such as education or modifying diet and exercise.
Experimental: Park Golf Group (PGG)
Participants attended supervised park golf sessions twice weekly for 4 weeks (8 sessions total, 60 minutes per session), including warm-up (10 min), park golf skills training and practice (40 min), and cool-down (10 min), held at a community park.
Behavioral: Park Golf Program
A structured, supervised park golf program consisting of 8 sessions over 4 weeks (2 sessions/week, 60 minutes/session). Each session included a 10-minute warm-up, 40 minutes of park golf technique instruction and practice, and a 10-minute cool-down, conducted at an outdoor community park under the supervision of trained instructors.
Active Comparator: Health Education Group (HEG)
Participants attended health education lectures on senior health management, nutrition, fall prevention, and chronic disease management, twice weekly for 4 weeks (8 sessions total, 60 minutes per session).
Behavioral: Health Education Program
A structured health education program consisting of 8 sessions over 4 weeks (2 sessions per week, 60 minutes per session), covering topics such as senior health management, nutrition, fall prevention, and chronic disease management, conducted at a community facility.

What is the study measuring?

Primary Outcome Measures

Primary Outcome Measures

In a clinical study's protocol, the planned outcome measure that is the most important for evaluating the effect of an intervention/treatment. Most clinical studies have one primary outcome measure, but some have more than one.
Outcome Measure
Measure Description
Time Frame
Change in Prefrontal Cortex Activation (Beta-value of HbO Concentration)
Time Frame: Change from baseline to 4 weeks (post-intervention)
Change in oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO) concentration in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), measured as a beta-value derived from general linear model (GLM) analysis during the spatial N-back task, using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS).
Change from baseline to 4 weeks (post-intervention)

Secondary Outcome Measures

Secondary Outcome Measures

In a clinical study's protocol, a planned outcome measure that is not as important as the primary outcome measure for evaluating the effect of an intervention but is still of interest. Most clinical studies have more than one secondary outcome measure.
Outcome Measure
Measure Description
Time Frame
Working Memory Performance (Spatial N-back Task)
Time Frame: Change from baseline to 4 weeks (post-intervention)
Reaction time and accuracy on the 2-back condition of a spatial N-back task, assessing spatial working memory. Task administered using E-Prime 3.0 software with 1-back and 2-back conditions presented in alternating blocks.
Change from baseline to 4 weeks (post-intervention)
Dynamic Balance (Timed Up and Go Test)
Time Frame: Change from baseline to 4 weeks (post-intervention)
Time (in seconds) taken to rise from a chair, walk 3 meters, turn around, and return to sitting, assessing dynamic balance and functional mobility.
Change from baseline to 4 weeks (post-intervention)
Cognitive-Motor Dual-Task Performance (TUG with Naming Animals)
Time Frame: Change from baseline to 4 weeks (post-intervention)
Performance on the TUG test while simultaneously naming as many animals as possible, assessing integrated cognitive-motor function. Measures include dual-task time, dual-task cost, number of animals named, and animals named per 10 seconds.
Change from baseline to 4 weeks (post-intervention)
Global Cognitive Function (Korean Montreal Cognitive Assessment)
Time Frame: Change from baseline to 4 weeks (post-intervention)
Overall cognitive function assessed using MoCA-K, covering visuospatial/executive function, naming, attention, language, abstraction, delayed recall, and orientation. Total score range 0-30.
Change from baseline to 4 weeks (post-intervention)

Collaborators and Investigators

This is where you will find people and organizations involved with this study.

Sponsor

Sponsor

The organization or person who initiates the study and who has authority and control over the study.
Gwangju Health University

Investigators

Investigators

A researcher involved in a clinical study. Related terms include site principal investigator, site sub-investigator, study chair, study director, and study principal investigator.
  • Principal Investigator: Eun-Sang Lee, PhD, Gwangju Health University

Study record dates

These dates track the progress of study record and summary results submissions to ClinicalTrials.gov. Study records and reported results are reviewed by the National Library of Medicine (NLM) to make sure they meet specific quality control standards before being posted on the public website.

Study Major Dates

Study Start (Estimated)

Study Start

The actual date on which the first participant was enrolled in a clinical study. The "anticipated" study start date is the date that the researchers think will be the study start date.
September 10, 2026

Primary Completion (Estimated)

Primary Completion

The date on which the last participant in a clinical study was examined or received an intervention to collect final data for the primary outcome measure. Whether the clinical study ended according to the protocol or was terminated does not affect this date. For clinical studies with more than one primary outcome measure with different completion dates, this term refers to the date on which data collection is completed for all the primary outcome measures. The "anticipated" primary completion date is the date that the researchers think will be the primary completion date for the study.
October 15, 2026

Study Completion (Estimated)

Study Completion

The date on which the last participant in a clinical study was examined or received an intervention/treatment to collect final data for the primary outcome measures, secondary outcome measures, and adverse events (that is, the last participant's last visit). The "anticipated" study completion date is the date that the researchers think will be the study completion date.
October 15, 2026

Study Registration Dates

First Submitted

First Submitted

The date on which the study sponsor or investigator first submitted a study record to ClinicalTrials.gov. There is typically a delay of a few days between the first submitted date and the record's availability on ClinicalTrials.gov (the first posted date).
September 2, 2026

First Submitted That Met QC Criteria

First Submitted That Met QC Criteria

The date on which the study sponsor or investigator first submits a study record that is consistent with National Library of Medicine (NLM) quality control (QC) review criteria. The sponsor or investigator may need to revise and submit a study record one or more times before NLM's QC review criteria are met. It is the responsibility of the sponsor or investigator to ensure that the study record is consistent with the NLM QC review criteria.
September 2, 2026

First Posted (Actual)

First Posted

The date on which the study record was first available on ClinicalTrials.gov after National Library of Medicine (NLM) quality control (QC) review has concluded. There is typically a delay of a few days between the date the study sponsor or investigator submitted the study record and the first posted date.
September 8, 2026

Study Record Updates

Last Update Posted (Actual)

Last Update Posted

The most recent date on which changes to a study record were made available on ClinicalTrials.gov. There may be a delay between when the changes were submitted to ClinicalTrials.gov by the study's sponsor or investigator (the last update submitted date) and the last update posted date.
September 8, 2026

Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria

Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria

The most recent date on which the study sponsor or investigator submitted changes to a study record that are consistent with National Library of Medicine (NLM) quality control (QC) review criteria. It is the responsibility of the sponsor or investigator to ensure that the study record is consistent with the NLM QC review criteria.
September 2, 2026

Last Verified

Last Verified

The most recent date on which the study sponsor or investigator confirmed the information about a clinical study on ClinicalTrials.gov as accurate and current. If a study with a recruitment status of recruiting; not yet recruiting; or active, not recruiting has not been confirmed within the past 2 years, the study's recruitment status is shown as unknown.
September 1, 2026

More Information

Terms related to this study

Keywords

Other Study ID Numbers

Other Study ID Numbers

Identifiers or ID numbers other than the NCT number that are assigned to a clinical study by the study's sponsor, funders, or others. These numbers may include unique identifiers from other trial registries and National Institutes of Health grant numbers.
  • P01-202607-01-010

Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)

Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?

NO

IPD Plan Description

Data will not be shared beyond this study, in accordance with the informed consent obtained from participants, which specified that collected data would be used solely for this study without secondary use or third-party disclosure.

Drug and device information, study documents

Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product

No

Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product

No

This information was retrieved directly from the website clinicaltrials.gov without any changes. If you have any requests to change, remove or update your study details, please contact register@clinicaltrials.gov. As soon as a change is implemented on clinicaltrials.gov, this will be updated automatically on our website as well.

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