Differential Learning Enhances Motor Performance and Retention in Sport Science Students (DL_BP_RCT)

June 3, 2026 updated by: Kais Elabed, The Higher Institute of Sport and Physical Education of Sfax

Differential Learning Enhances Motor Performance and Retention in Sport Science Students: A Randomized Controlled Trial

This randomized controlled trial compared differential learning (DL) versus blocked practice (BP) on motor performance and retention in 100 sport science students. Participants performed a table tennis topspin serve. DL involved continuous movement variations without corrective feedback; BP involved repetition with corrective feedback. Outcomes included accuracy (Euclidean distance) and movement variability (ApEn). Assessments at baseline, post-intervention (after 6 sessions over 3 weeks), and 7-day retention.

Study Overview

Status

Status

Indicates the current recruitment status or the expanded access status.
Completed

Conditions

Conditions

The disease, disorder, syndrome, illness, or injury that is being studied. On ClinicalTrials.gov, conditions may also include other health-related issues, such as lifespan, quality of life, and health risks.

Intervention / Treatment

Intervention / Treatment

A process or action that is the focus of a clinical study. Interventions include drugs, medical devices, procedures, vaccines, and other products that are either investigational or already available. Interventions can also include noninvasive approaches, such as education or modifying diet and exercise.

Detailed Description

A two-arm parallel-group randomized controlled trial. One hundred undergraduate sport science students (age 18-25 years) were randomly assigned to differential learning (DL, n=50) or blocked practice (BP, n=50). The DL group performed a table tennis topspin serve with continuous pseudo-random variations across five movement dimensions (stance, backswing amplitude, execution speed, trunk rotation, wrist action) without corrective feedback. The BP group repeated a standardized movement pattern with trial-by-trial corrective feedback. Both groups completed six training sessions over three weeks (two sessions per week, 45 min each). Motor performance (accuracy measured as Euclidean distance from target center) was assessed at baseline, post-intervention (within 48h), and retention (7 days later). Movement variability was quantified using approximate entropy (ApEn) from kinematic data. Theoretical knowledge of motor learning was assessed as a potential moderator. Linear mixed-effects models, moderation analysis, and mediation analysis (bootstrapping) were performed. The trial was retrospectively registered at ClinicalTrials.gov.

Study Type

Study Type

Describes the nature of a clinical study. Study types include interventional studies (also called clinical trials), observational studies (including patient registries), and expanded access.
Interventional

Enrollment (Actual)

Enrollment

The number of participants in a clinical study. The "anticipated" enrollment is the target number of participants that the researchers need for the study.
100

Phase

Phase

The stage of a clinical trial studying a drug or biological product, based on definitions developed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The phase is based on the study's objective, the number of participants, and other characteristics. There are five phases: Early Phase 1 (formerly listed as Phase 0), Phase 1, Phase 2, Phase 3, and Phase 4. Not Applicable is used to describe trials without FDA-defined phases, including trials of devices or behavioral interventions.
  • Not Applicable

Contacts and Locations

This section provides the contact details for those conducting the study, and information on where this study is being conducted.

Study Locations

  • Tunisia
      • Sfax, Tunisia, 3000
        • Higher Institute of Sport and Physical Education of Sfax (ISSEP Sfax)

Participation Criteria

Researchers look for people who fit a certain description, called eligibility criteria. Some examples of these criteria are a person's general health condition or prior treatments.

Eligibility Criteria

Eligibility Criteria

The key requirements that people who want to participate in a clinical study must meet or the characteristics they must have. Eligibility criteria consist of both inclusion criteria (which are required for a person to participate in the study) and exclusion criteria (which prevent a person from participating). Types of eligibility criteria include whether a study accepts healthy volunteers, has age or age group requirements, or is limited by sex.

Ages Eligible for Study

  • Adult

Accepts Healthy Volunteers

Yes

Description

Inclusion Criteria:

  • Undergraduate sport science student
  • Age 18 to 25 years
  • Physically active but non-expert in table tennis (less than 2 hours per week of structured practice in the past year)
  • Absence of self-reported musculoskeletal injury affecting upper or lower limbs
  • No known neurological or sleep disorders
  • No use of medication affecting motor or cognitive function
  • No irregular sleep schedules

Exclusion Criteria:

  • Regular table tennis competition
  • Injury preventing practice
  • Known sleep disorder
  • Inability to provide informed consent

Study Plan

This section provides details of the study plan, including how the study is designed and what the study is measuring.

How is the study designed?

Design Details

  • Primary Purpose: Basic Science
  • Allocation: Randomized
  • Interventional Model: Parallel Assignment
  • Masking: Single

Arms and Interventions

Participant Group / Arm

Participant Group / Arm

A group or subgroup of participants in a clinical trial that receives a specific intervention/treatment, or no intervention, according to the trial's protocol.
Intervention / Treatment

Intervention / Treatment

A process or action that is the focus of a clinical study. Interventions include drugs, medical devices, procedures, vaccines, and other products that are either investigational or already available. Interventions can also include noninvasive approaches, such as education or modifying diet and exercise.
Experimental: Differential Learning Group
Participants performed table tennis topspin serve with continuous variations across five movement dimensions (stance, backswing amplitude, execution speed, trunk rotation, wrist action) without corrective feedback.
Behavioral: Differential Learning
Participants performed table tennis topspin serve with continuous pseudo-random variations across five movement dimensions (stance, backswing amplitude, execution speed, trunk rotation, wrist action) without corrective feedback.
Active Comparator: Blocked Practice Group
Participants repeated a standardized movement pattern with trial-by-trial corrective feedback focusing on consistency and accuracy.
Behavioral: Blocked Practice
Participants repeated a standardized movement pattern with trial-by-trial corrective feedback focusing on consistency and accuracy.

What is the study measuring?

Primary Outcome Measures

Primary Outcome Measures

In a clinical study's protocol, the planned outcome measure that is the most important for evaluating the effect of an intervention/treatment. Most clinical studies have one primary outcome measure, but some have more than one.
Outcome Measure
Measure Description
Time Frame
Motor Performance (Accuracy)
Time Frame: Baseline, immediately post-intervention (after 3 weeks), and 7-day retention
Euclidean distance (in cm) between the ball's first landing point and the center of the target area during a table tennis topspin serve.
Baseline, immediately post-intervention (after 3 weeks), and 7-day retention

Secondary Outcome Measures

Secondary Outcome Measures

In a clinical study's protocol, a planned outcome measure that is not as important as the primary outcome measure for evaluating the effect of an intervention but is still of interest. Most clinical studies have more than one secondary outcome measure.
Outcome Measure
Measure Description
Time Frame
Movement Variability
Time Frame: Baseline, immediately post-intervention (after 3 weeks), and 7-day retention
Approximate entropy (ApEn) derived from kinematic time-series data recorded during each trial. Higher ApEn values indicate greater movement complexity and adaptability.
Baseline, immediately post-intervention (after 3 weeks), and 7-day retention

Collaborators and Investigators

This is where you will find people and organizations involved with this study.

Sponsor

Sponsor

The organization or person who initiates the study and who has authority and control over the study.
The Higher Institute of Sport and Physical Education of Sfax

Investigators

Investigators

A researcher involved in a clinical study. Related terms include site principal investigator, site sub-investigator, study chair, study director, and study principal investigator.
  • Principal Investigator: Kais El Abed, Phd, University of Sfax, Tunisia

Publications and helpful links

The person responsible for entering information about the study voluntarily provides these publications. These may be about anything related to the study.

General Publications

  • Chmara P, Brzykcy A, Brazevic S, Jozwiak M. Habitual Physical Activity and Walking Endurance Following Inpatient Rehabilitation in Children With Cerebral Palsy. Cureus. 2026;18(5):e109862.

Study record dates

These dates track the progress of study record and summary results submissions to ClinicalTrials.gov. Study records and reported results are reviewed by the National Library of Medicine (NLM) to make sure they meet specific quality control standards before being posted on the public website.

Study Major Dates

Study Start (Actual)

Study Start

The actual date on which the first participant was enrolled in a clinical study. The "anticipated" study start date is the date that the researchers think will be the study start date.
June 2, 2025

Primary Completion (Actual)

Primary Completion

The date on which the last participant in a clinical study was examined or received an intervention to collect final data for the primary outcome measure. Whether the clinical study ended according to the protocol or was terminated does not affect this date. For clinical studies with more than one primary outcome measure with different completion dates, this term refers to the date on which data collection is completed for all the primary outcome measures. The "anticipated" primary completion date is the date that the researchers think will be the primary completion date for the study.
June 30, 2025

Study Completion (Actual)

Study Completion

The date on which the last participant in a clinical study was examined or received an intervention/treatment to collect final data for the primary outcome measures, secondary outcome measures, and adverse events (that is, the last participant's last visit). The "anticipated" study completion date is the date that the researchers think will be the study completion date.
June 30, 2025

Study Registration Dates

First Submitted

First Submitted

The date on which the study sponsor or investigator first submitted a study record to ClinicalTrials.gov. There is typically a delay of a few days between the first submitted date and the record's availability on ClinicalTrials.gov (the first posted date).
May 30, 2026

First Submitted That Met QC Criteria

First Submitted That Met QC Criteria

The date on which the study sponsor or investigator first submits a study record that is consistent with National Library of Medicine (NLM) quality control (QC) review criteria. The sponsor or investigator may need to revise and submit a study record one or more times before NLM's QC review criteria are met. It is the responsibility of the sponsor or investigator to ensure that the study record is consistent with the NLM QC review criteria.
June 3, 2026

First Posted (Actual)

First Posted

The date on which the study record was first available on ClinicalTrials.gov after National Library of Medicine (NLM) quality control (QC) review has concluded. There is typically a delay of a few days between the date the study sponsor or investigator submitted the study record and the first posted date.
June 5, 2026

Study Record Updates

Last Update Posted (Actual)

Last Update Posted

The most recent date on which changes to a study record were made available on ClinicalTrials.gov. There may be a delay between when the changes were submitted to ClinicalTrials.gov by the study's sponsor or investigator (the last update submitted date) and the last update posted date.
June 5, 2026

Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria

Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria

The most recent date on which the study sponsor or investigator submitted changes to a study record that are consistent with National Library of Medicine (NLM) quality control (QC) review criteria. It is the responsibility of the sponsor or investigator to ensure that the study record is consistent with the NLM QC review criteria.
June 3, 2026

Last Verified

Last Verified

The most recent date on which the study sponsor or investigator confirmed the information about a clinical study on ClinicalTrials.gov as accurate and current. If a study with a recruitment status of recruiting; not yet recruiting; or active, not recruiting has not been confirmed within the past 2 years, the study's recruitment status is shown as unknown.
June 1, 2026

More Information

Terms related to this study

Keywords

Other Study ID Numbers

Other Study ID Numbers

Identifiers or ID numbers other than the NCT number that are assigned to a clinical study by the study's sponsor, funders, or others. These numbers may include unique identifiers from other trial registries and National Institutes of Health grant numbers.
  • ISSEP_DL_BP_2025

Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)

Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?

NO

Drug and device information, study documents

Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product

No

Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product

No

This information was retrieved directly from the website clinicaltrials.gov without any changes. If you have any requests to change, remove or update your study details, please contact register@clinicaltrials.gov. As soon as a change is implemented on clinicaltrials.gov, this will be updated automatically on our website as well.

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